Psychology Semester 2

Psychology Semester 2


Chapter 6-

Social cognition

-> person perception, attributions, attitudes and stereotypes in interpreting, analysing, remembering and using information about the social world, including decision-making and interpersonal interactions

-> the avoidance of cognitive dissonance using cognitive biases

-> the positive and negative influences of heuristics ( enabling someone to discover or learn something for themselves) as mechanisms for decision-making and problem-solving

-> the influence of prejudice, discrimination and stigma within society on a person’s and/or group’s mental wellbeing and ways to reduce it 


Person Perception:


Mental processes used to form impressions and draw conclusions about the personal characteristics of other people


Reliant on quick judgements about others which will guide the relationship that develops.


Schemas:

Pre-existing mental ideas relating to a given concept that help us organise and interpret new information


Impressions for non-verbal communication:

  • Body language

  • Eye contact

  • Facial expressions


Halo effect

Reverse Halo effect

Horn effect

People we judge to be physically attractive are also perceived to be more interesting, mentally healthy, intelligent and skilled than an unattractive person


Assuming that a positive characteristic is concurrent with a negative one


⬆eg. assuming that someone who is physically attractive must also be shallow



The presence of negative characteristics leads to the assumption that there must be more negative characteristics.

Salience:

Personal characteristics that are distinctive and attract attention -> draws attention to obvious features


Attribution: How we explain the causes of our (and others) behaviour

⬆- Why would someone else cheat on a test?

  • didnt study -> personal

  • dont know the content -> personal

  • are stuck/just dont know -> personal

  • didnt pay attention in class -> personal

  • are unprepared -> personal

  • Lack of motivation -> personal

  • Situation that prevents them from studying, meaning they dont know -> situational

⬆- Why didnt YOU get the job?

  • There are more suitable candidates -> situational

  • Didnt come across confident -> personal

  • Just didnt like you


Personal (dispositional)


Internal -> our behaviours that are the result of personal disposition, motivations and choices

Situational


External -> uncontrollable cicrustances around us


Fundamental Attribution Error: The tendency to overestimate the influence of personal factors and underestimate the impact of situational factors and others behaviour

⬆Just-world fallacy -> belief that the world is generally a place where people get what they deserve and deserve what they get (karma)

Eg. the whole idea of “what were you wearing”


Actor-observer bias: attribute own behaviour to situational influences, but as observers attribute others behaviour to them personally ➡ blame reactions and behaviours onto others and circumstances out of our control


Self-serving bias: judge ourselves and take credit for successes and attribute failures to situational factors


If you can notice a repeated pattern in the types of attribution someone tends to make, they may have an attributional style. The fundamental attribution error is when someone attributes another person’s behaviour to internal causes, when instead their behaviour is caused by external factors.















The three primary steps in attribution in order are:

  1. observation

  2. determination of behaviour 

  3. attribution


Attitudes:

A consistent and enduring evaluation we make about objects, people, groups, and events, or issues.

⬆a judgment, dislike/like, for/against, stable for long periods of time



Affective Component: emotional reactions or feelings an individual has towards an object/person/event/issue

Behavioural Component: The way the attitude is expressed in our actions

Cognitive Component: Thoughts or Beliefs that form the attitude based on our life experience,



⬆All components must be present for an attitude to form -> usually they are all in alignment

  • Sometimes behaviour does not match attitude and thoughts/feelings


Inconsistency in endurance: 

  • Possible to hold an attitude of a component is not in alignment

  • Most frequent: The behavioural component is not in alignment with affective and cognitive components

Limitations of the model:

  • Attitudes are not predictive of behaviour (inconsistent)

  • Affective and cognitive components are not sufficient alone to determine an attitude has been formed

Attitudes in music:

Born this way -> 

Affective Component: accepting people no matter who they are

Behavioural Component: promoting self-acceptance, equality, and pride in one's identity, 

Cognitive Component: that everyone is “born this way” and we should embrace and accept it

in the sac we will be given a stimulus and have to pick our abcs from it


Strenght of the attitude:

The stronger the attitude the more likely it will be:

  • consistent and stable

  • resistant to change

  • influence and predict behaviour

  • Accessibility - strong attitudes easily comes to mind


Social context of the attitude:

For an attitude to lead to a behaviour it is dependent on the situation ->

A situation may ‘overpower’ an attitude a person holds, and hence the attitude may not be expressed.

  • Context may overpower the affective and cognitive components.


Perceived control of the behaviour: the belief that the individual is free to perform (or not) the behaviour triggered by the attitude


Cognitive dissonance: 

Mental conflict that occurs when a person's behaviour/attitude/beliefs do not align leading to change to reduce discomfort.


Forced compliance behaviour: doing something publicly they privately wouldnt do


Decision making: weigh up the pros and cons for each option to create conflict


Effort: how much effort it takes to achieve must also be valuable. 

a)

Affective Component: anger/disgust towards wearing fur

Behavioural Component: throws it, almost cremates it, HATES it

Cognitive Component: believes that animal fur coats are wrong, “death isnt fashion”


b) she begins to experience cognitive dissonance when looking in the mirror and seeing how it looks on her/enjoys the feel of it. She enjoys doing something her attitude tells her she shouldnt be.


c) she tries to justify it by adding a new cognition, “minx are bad animals anyway”. 












Cognitive Bias:

  • Helps protect us from the thoughts that create cognitive disonance

Systematic error of judgement and faulty decision making that usually leads to inaccurate or unreasonable decisions

  • Inbuilt flaws without thinking

  • constant/predictable

  • unconscious


Anchoring Bias:

Relying heavily on the first piece of info received and not modifying judgments when further info is available

Attentional Bias:

Prioritising attention to certain info over other information, avoiding considering all options and outcomes

  • Leads to anxiety

  • Dont pay attention to other outcomes

False-consensus bias:

Tendency to overestimate the extent to which other people like you or share personal characteristics or beliefs.
























Heuristics:

Initial mechanism that causes cognitive bias to happen.

  • Problem solving strategy based on experience with similar types of problem, but cannot agurntee a correct outcome. 



Heuristic

Definition

Example

Strengths

Limitations

Availability

making a judgment based on how easy or difficult it is to bring specific examples to mind.


More available information from long-term memory = more likely we will base our judgment on that information.

Eg. when tasked to drive or fly to another state, the available information shows a highway accident on the road that you would follow. The availability heuristic is used to reach a quick decision, but not quite the correct decision. (an airline may have been cancelled which messes up plans ect.)

Save time and effort

Lead to errors of judgement

Representativeness

categorising a person, object, event or anything else by judging how closely it matches our idea of a typical member of the category.


may base our judgment entirely on single characteristics that we believe adequately represents a category when decision-making.

Eg. stereotypes, categorising someone with beards and tattoos as a bikie (when in reality they be a school teacher) -> could also categorise them as “mean” or “scary”

OR people categorise highly expensive things as good products “worth the price”, so when something is expensive people automatically assume its good quality.

Time saving when making judgements


Often leads to accurate conclusions and decision making

Can lead to poor judgements and bad decisions


Inaccurate impressions


Flawed stereotyping


Social ccategoristation

Affect

making a judgment that is influenced by the emotion being experienced at the time.


used when judging the risks and benefits of something during the decision-making process.


a negative emotional state = more likely to judge the risks as high and the benefits as low. 

Eg. If you are scared of heights, the affect heuristic may influence you to ride on a cable car when in a positive emotional state.

shorten problem solving and decision making time


cut corners and process information quickly,

Stereotypes:

A collection of beliefs we have about people who belog to a cretain group, regardless of individual differences. Commonly associated as being a negative thing

  • Type of cognitive shortcut - a framework to show how we can interact with new people (forming first impressions)

  • Often inaccurate and oversimplified with little to no evidence

  • Ignorance towards individuality

  • Perpetuated - ignore info that doesnt fit with our stereotype (confirmation bias)

Social categorisation: grouping people on the basis of common characteristics


Ingroup: the people you belong to or identify with

Outgroup: those you do not belong to or identify with

⬆escalate to things that are negative (prejudice + discrimination)

  • Innate characteristic


Prejudice: holding negative attitude towards members of a group, on the basis of their belonging in that group

4 characteristics:

  • Belief that they are superior to the minority group whom the prejudice is directed

  • Minority group is different from them and “do not belong” (different_

  • the majority group tend to believe that they are more powerful and important than the minority group

  • a majority group that displays prejudiced attitudes is insecure, fearing the minority group may become more powerful and important than itself. (minority in some way is going to take away that power)


Old fashioned prejudice:

Members of a majority openly and obviously rejecting members of a minority

  • Very visible and transparent

  • Do not hide it

Modern prejudice:

Subtle and subversive rejection, more likely to be socially accepted

  • Not really apparent they are being rejected

Eg. entitlement, want more right “they dont deserve it because they dont work as hard as anyone else”

Explicit

Prejudice that is consciously held and deliberaatly thought about.

  • Similar to old-fashioned prejudice it is typically openly expressed by a person holding it

  • Within control

Implicit

Prejudice that is typically unconsciously held.

  • Not usually within control of the person holding it


More similar to modern prejudice



Explain implicit bias in relation to racial prejudice

Implicit bias in the subconscious behaviour or thought process of prejudice.

  • Autopilot, save time and effort

  • Built towards life experiences

  • Representative and availability heuristics.


If someone has an implicit bias, does it mean they are _____ist (eg. Racist, sexist, ageist, ableist)? Explain

No it does not immediately mean it, as being a ___ist usually involves explicit prejudice, whereas implicit bias is an unconscious and normalised act. 


List two examples of significant issues that may arise from implicit bias

  • Discrimination

  • Act in a way of not your moral beliefs

  • Medical treatment


List two strategies for reducing implicit bias.

  • Communication of those in “out groups” -> spending time

  • Slowing down


Discrimination: Positive or negative behaviour directed towards a social group and its members.


Direct Discrimination:

Being treated unfairly because of a certain characteristic 

Eg. separate drink fountains for whites and blacks


Eg. only allowed to wear a skirt (female), men dont have to

Indirect Discrimination:

Treated unfairly because of a rule or practise that seems it would be neutral

  • Subtle

  • everyone is affected by a rule, but it only disadvantages some people


Eg. making the cost of a uniform so expensive so socioeconomic backgrounds cant get it, making girls pants 5$ whereas the boys are 3$.



Methods that may redujce prejudice:


Reducing Prejudice

Intergroup contact:

Reduce prejudice by increasing direct contact between groups who are prejudiced against each other

  • Forcing cognitive dissonance

(breaking down stereotypes because more information becomes available to you)

Success increases with:

  • Sustained contact

  • One on one interactions

  • Mutual interdependence

Superordinate goals:

A goal that cannot be achieved by one group alone overrides other existing goals

  • Both want the same thing, look for other characteristics ➡ stereotypes break down

Equality of status:

Each group must have the same level of power, influence, and opportunity. 


  • Equal status ➡ removes the power as a resource to result in conflict over 

Cognitive interventions:

changing the way in which someone thinks about prejudice. 


  1. Reject prejudice attitude and behaviours

  2. they must hold fast to their non-prejudiced beliefs and make these an important part of their personal self-concept; that is, how they think and feel about themself as a person

  3. the individual must learn to suppress or block from conscious awareness prejudicial reactions that may occur and deliberately replace them with non-prejudiced responses that are based on their personal standards.









Chapter 7- 

  • •the influence of social groups and culture on individual behaviour

  • •the concepts of obedience and conformity and their relative influence on individual behaviour

  • •positive and negative influences of different media sources on individual and group behaviour, such as changing nature of social connections, social comparison, addictive behaviours and information access

  • •the development of independence and anti-conformity to empower individual decision-making when in groups



Social influence: the effect sof the presence or actions of others, either real or imagined, on the way people think, feel, and behave.

Group: A collection of two or more people who interact with and influence one another and who share a common purpose

Aggregation: A collection of people who just happen to be in the same location -> no obvious social structure, organisation. They have minimal interdependence or direct interaction.


Culture - The way of life of a society or community that makes it unique

  • Includes language, customs, traditions


Collectivism: 

Individualism:



Status: The importance of an individual’s position in the group, as perceived by the members of the group.

  • hierarchy/dynamic -> eg. family, teachers, imaginary OR real?


Power: An individual (or groups) ability to control or influence the thoughts, feelings, or behaviour of another person (or group)

  • Different benefits

  • More status = more power


Social power: When control and influence is exerted via the relationship between individuals/groups; creating desirable legitimate values without involving unconventional means. 









Factors Affecting Conformity 


Group size

Conformity increases with group size up to a size of four, a group larger than 15 tends to have lower levels conformity than of 3. 

⬆more likely to break up a group (friendship groups)

  • OPTIMUM SIZE IS FOUR!!

Unanimity

Harder to stand out against complete agreement. 

  • When one ally is present, conformity reduces

Informational Influence

  • When we are unsure of the correct or appropriate response we look to others

⬆confirm because we want to be right

Normative Influecne

Repsonses are guided by social norms, providing the individual with acceptance by the group

⬆we conform because we want to be liked

Impact of culture

  • Individualistic: less likely to conform, taught to be indpendent

  • Collectivist: more likely to conform, group loyalty, whtas best for everyone.

Social Loafing

Tendency to make less effort in a group than when working alone, effort decreases.

⬆task efficiency is a maximum of 4, effort drops off when theres more.

Heavily dependent on importance of the task.

Social Comparison:

The process of evaluating our attitude and abilities by comparing ourselves to other people.

Deindividuation

Reduced self-consciousness, inhibition, feelings of personal responsibility, and inner restraint that can occur when in a group or crowd.

  • Dont feel accountability of behaviour, when other people are behaving the same way












Anonymity: Occurs when people feel unrecognisable or invisible in a group they feel less accountable for their actions. -> more likely to experience deindivduation and participate in inhumane ways.

Eg. masks on and individuality gone, they dont know who they are.


Shift Attention:

In a group, the individual is focused on the activities of the group and less likely to reflect on the appropriateness of their own actions. (and therefore consequences of their actions)

  • Increased impulsivity, decreased introspection and self awareness



Distinguish between: -> differences, relevance, scientific


Status and Power:

Status refers to the importance of an individuals position withing a group, perceived by the members within it. Whereas, power is an individual or groups ability to control or influence the thoughts, feelings, or behaviour of another person or group.

While status is about social recognition and respect, power is about the capacity to effect change and make decisions. Both affect how individuals interact and function within a group.


Group size and Social Loafing:

Group size refers to how an individual will conform depending on group size, whereas Social loafing refers to the tendency to do less efort if within a group. Group size affects dynamics such as participation and accountability, whereas social loafing affects diffusion of responsibility and decrease in efforts. Unlike group size, social loafing refers to individual motivation and effort, which is determined by motivation and accountability within a group.

an be mitigated by enhancing accountability and motivation within the group.



The influence of Media


Social Connections: The relationships that individuals have with the people around them

  • Strong social connections are linked to better mental and physical health.

PROS: 

+ More opportunities to form and maintain social relationships

+ increased access to support networks and professional contacts

+ Overcome barriers to socialisation: distance, work commitments, $$$

CONS:

- Reduced face to face contact leading to reduced emotion recognition

- physical detachment from real world interactions (online will spending social time with others)








Social Comparison: Self-evaluations based on observations of others.

Upward Social Comparison

•we evaluate ourselves to someone we perceive to be better than we are. 

•often focus on our desire to improve our current status or level of ability, which motivates our comparisons.

Downward Social Comparison

•we evaluate ourselves to someone we perceive to be worse than we are.

•often make us feel better about our abilities or traits, raising our self-esteem.

PROS: Keeps us on track, motivates self improvement

CONS: comparisons to unrealistic standards leads to low self esteem, eg. inferior, envious, jealousy. Fear of FOMO and social exclusion.


Addictive Behaviours:

A person driven by an uncontrollable motivation to perform certain behaviours and devoting so much time and effort to these behaviours that it impairs their other impotant life areas.

  • Cant function without it, affecting life.


Criteria to determine social media addiction:

  • salience — being preoccupied by social media

  • mood modification — using social media in order to reduce negative feelings or induce positive feelings

  • tolerance — gradually using social media more and more over time in order to get the same pleasure from it

  • withdrawal — experiencing distress if social media use is stopped or reduced

  • conflict with other activities — prioritising social media use impacts on other activities and important life areas

  • loss of control/relapse — inability to control social media usage.

Information Access: 

Increased ability to identify, retrieve, and gain access to information quickly


PROS:

+ increased cultural and political awareness

+ knowledge of global issues

+ Quick dissemination of crucial information e.g. disaster warnings and alerts

+ Variety of sources

CONS:

-Increased distractions, reduced self-regulation

-Potential negative online interactions – bullying, harassment

-Exposure to inaccurate or misleading information e.g. ‘fake news’

-Potential cybersafety threats – privacy, identity theft




DOT POINT 4:

The development of independence and anti-conformity to empower individual decision-making when in groups

Anti-conformity: Deliberate refusal to comply with accepted standards in a society

Independence: Evident when we experience freedom from the influence or control of other individuals or groups.


Factors affecting non-conformity

Minority vs Majority:

When ONE individual deviates from the majority they receive more attention and are other met with ridicule and exclusion (social paria)


When 2 or more individuals deviate, they form a minority and while they may receive more attention from the majority, they are often viewed as a separate group with a valid opinion and may be able to influence the majority

Task Ambiguity:

IF a task is not immediately obvious, levels the playing field. So someone feels more capable when taking risks and acting more independently.



  • When solutions to problems are ambiguous, everyone becomes an expert, leading to greater independence in decision making

Personality Factors:


Does not cause you too, just a link between.




Explanations for Non-Conformity

Psychological reactance: when experiencing cognitive dissonance, the desire to restore freedom and choices in response to a perceived threat to their independence. 


  • When people feel that they are being forced to agree with or do something, they will react against the coercion, and they may think, feel or behave opposite to that which is desired


AKA reverse psychology


Eg. Covid vaccinations - compulsory, people began to react against and not get it because of a limited choice. 


Need for uniqueness: 

  • a psychological state in which individuals feel indistinguishable from others, which then motivates compensatory acts to restore a sense of uniqueness.


  •  -> “not like other girls 😝”

Social Impact Theory:


the degree of influence that a person experiences in group settings depends on three factors: the group’s strength, the group’s immediacy and the number of people in the group who are exerting social influence. 


  • A loose group, less likely to conform.



































Edrolos:

Social identity theory:

Social identity theory is the tendency for people to favour their in-group over an out-group in order to enhance their sense of self-esteem.


Belonging to a group can influence individual behaviour through:

group norms, social loafing, and social identity theory.


Social loafing:

the phenomenon of a person exerting less effort to achieve a goal when they work in a group than when working alone.


Outline one similarity and one difference between the terms ‘individualist’ and ‘collectivist’.

Individualist and collectivist are both terms that are used to describe cultures.1However, individualist cultures value the goals and needs of individuals, whereas collectivist cultures value the goals and needs of the larger society.2


A group norm is a standard, value, or rule that outlines an appropriate behaviour or experience within a group.1