Self assement 1914-present

Georges Clemenceau

French leader at the Paris Peace Conference (1919). He pushed for harsh punishment of Germany, security for France, and heavy reparations in the Treaty of Versailles. Known as “The Tiger.”

Vittorio Orlando

Represented Italy at Versailles. Wanted territorial gains promised in the Treaty of London, but Italy was largely disappointed, leading to the idea of a “mutilated victory.”

David Lloyd George

British PM during WWI and Versailles negotiations. Tried to balance punishing Germany with avoiding another war—more moderate than Clemenceau.

📚 Intellectual & Cultural Figures (Modern Europe)

Virginia Woolf

A leading modernist author. Explored stream-of-consciousness writing and themes like gender, identity, and mental health (e.g., Mrs Dalloway).

Franz Kafka

Known for surreal, anxious stories about bureaucracy and alienation (e.g., The Metamorphosis). Symbol of modern existential unease.

Erich Maria Remarque

Author of All Quiet on the Western Front, a powerful anti-war novel about WWI soldiers’ trauma.

Simone de Beauvoir

Key feminist thinker. Wrote The Second Sex, arguing that women are socially constructed as “the Other.”

⚛ Science & WWII Context

Enrico Fermi

Nobel Prize-winning physicist. Led nuclear chain reaction research and worked on the Manhattan Project, contributing to atomic weapons development.

✝ Religion & Resistance

Martin Niemöller

Initially supported Hitler but later opposed the Nazis. Famous for the quote about silence in the face of oppression (“First they came…”).

Pope John Paul II

Played a major role in weakening communism in Eastern Europe, especially supporting Solidarity in Poland.

🇪🇺 European Integration & Economy

European Coal and Steel Community

Created in 1951 by France, West Germany, and others. Put coal and steel industries under shared control to prevent war between European nations.

COMECON

Soviet-led economic organization for communist states. It coordinated trade in Eastern Europe as a response to Western economic systems.

European Common Market → European Union

  • Began as the EEC (European Economic Community)

  • Aimed to create free trade and economic integration

  • Expanded into the European Union (EU)

Maastricht Treaty

Created the modern EU. Introduced:

  • EU citizenship

  • Common foreign policy steps

  • Path toward economic and monetary union

💶 The Euro

The shared currency used by many EU countries, designed to unify trade and strengthen economic stability.

🌱 Politics & Social Movements

Green Parties

Political groups focused on environmental protection, anti-consumerism, sustainability, and social justice. Strong in Germany and across Europe.

Civil Rights (Gay and Lesbian rights in Europe)

Post-1960s movement pushing for:

  • Decriminalization of homosexuality

  • Legal equality (marriage, adoption rights)

  • Anti-discrimination laws

🇬🇧 Late 20th Century Politics

Margaret Thatcher

UK conservative leader known for:

  • Privatization of state industries

  • Free-market economics (“Thatcherism”)

  • Strong opposition to Soviet communism

  • Reduced power of trade unions