Social Relationships - Is a broad definition of how we interact and behave with other people, and how they interact and behave with us. Tend to be less intimate, with lesser self-disclosure involved, but may still be exclusive, and may demand certain levels of loyalty as in fraternities or religious organizations, and to a lesser extent loosely knitted social clubs like practitioners of certain specialized professions.
Daniel Goleman’s Social Intelligence Theory
Orbitofrontal Cortex (OFC) - Part of the human brain located just above the eyes, which is connected directly to the three major parts of the brain: the cortex, the amygdala and the brain stem. Provides an immediate connection between thoughts, emotions and behaviors. It immediately calculates our feelings and thoughts about a person and how the other person feels and thinks about us, and what actions we take after this quick assessment.
Social Influence Lisa Rashotte (2007): Things such as behaviors, actions, attitude, concepts, ideas, communications, wealth and other resources that bring about changes in the beliefs, attitudes and behavior of persons as a result of the action/s of another person. Happens as a result of interacting with other people who are perceived to be subject matter experts or of similar persuasion as the ones being influenced.
Varieties or Types of Social Influence by Herbert Kelman: 1. Compliance: Is when a person seems to agree, and follows what is requested or required of them to do or believe in, but does not necessarily have to really believe or agree to it. 2. Identification: Is when a person is influenced by someone he or she likes or looks up to, like a movie star, a social celebrity, or a superhero; 3. Internalization: Is when a person is able to own a certain belief or act, and is willing to make it known publicly and privately.
Other Types of Social Influence
Conformity (Pagsang-ayon) - A type of social influence that involves a change in behavior, belief, or thinking to be like others. It is the most common and pervasive form of social influence. Social psychology research in conformity tends to distinguish between two varieties: informational conformity (“internalization” in Kelman’s terms) and normative conformity (“compliance “ in Kelman’s terms). Very strong particularly among middle and late adolescents. An adolescent in that age group is most susceptible to a compelling need to seek approval from others and be accepted by them in order to become a friend and to belong to a social group. This tendency toward conformity among adolescents may lead to either positive or negative results, depending on the beliefs, intentions, and attitudes of the members of a group and the extent of their influence on an individual. Conformity is brought about by peer pressure, often imposed on the members of a group to demonstrate some semblance of loyalty, which is often deemed as necessary to maintain one’s relationship with the group. Conformity is one reason why group members look and behave similarly with one another such as wearing similar-looking clothes or enjoying the same movies and music genre, and adoring the same celebrities.
Conversion - Occurs when an individual whole-heartedly changes his or her original thinking and beliefs, actions and attitudes to align with those of the other members of the group. This also happens in the group when original beliefs, attitudes and behavior of the different members may have influenced each other to evolve into a new set of beliefs, attitudes and behaviors. Religious Conversions: Internalization happens to make a new set of beliefs, attitudes and actions become one’s own.
Minority Influence - When a bigger number of people are influenced by a much smaller number of people and when the minority’s way of looking and doing things are accepted. This may happen when the minority owns and wields power economically, politically and socially, or if the majority are uninvolved and detached from issues.
Reactance - Also known as anti- or non-conformity. There is a willing rejection of social influence being exerted on an individual or group. It is a reverse reaction to some social influence that is being imposed by a person or a group on another. Example: An adolescent who is being prevailed upon by the parents to stay at home during weekends and help in the house chores may react and develop a non-conforming behavior of not following their parents.
Obedience - Another form of social influence wherein a person follows what someone tells him or her to do, although it may not necessarily reflect the person’s set of beliefs or values. Similar to compliance, obedience usually stems from either respect or fear of the authority figure.
Persuasion - Used by one person or group to influence another to change their beliefs, actions or attitudes by appealing to reason or emotion.
Leadership and Followership Theories
Leadership (Pamumuno) - The action of leading a group of people or an organization.
Chester Barnard: The ability of a person in a position of authority to influence others to behave in such a manner that goals are achieved.
Leader - Often typecast as someone who is the head of a group of people by virtue of having great strength and wisdom, or may have inherited a position of power even if strength and wisdom were not part of this person’s virtues.
Power - Also annexed to leadership, and that a leader may obtain power through various means and sources, such as position, giving rewards, expertise, respect or coercion.
Theories of Leadership: 1. Trait Theory - Defines leadership based on certain personality traits that are generally suited for all leaders, such as decisiveness (katiyakan), persistence (pagtitiyaga), high level of self-confidence (kumpiyansa sa sarili) and assertiveness (pagpipilit), among others. 2. Behavioral Theory - This theory presupposes that leadership is a learned behavior, and that leaders are defined according to certain types of behavior they exhibit. 3. Participative Theory - The opposite of an autocratic leader (diktador na lider), this involves other people to make common decisions. 4. Situational Theory - Assumes that there is no one style of leadership and that leadership behavior is based on the factors present in a situation and, and usually takes into consideration how followers behave. 5. Transactional Theory - Leadership involves a transaction or negotiation or resources or position, and usually employs reward and punishment. 6. Transformational Theory - Involves a vision, which a leader uses to rally support from followers, and the role of the leader is in motivating others to support the vision and make it happen.
Authentic Leadership - Why Should Anyone Be Led by You?: What It Takes to Be an Authentic Leader by Rob Goffee and Gareth Jones (2006)
Three Basic Axioms of leadership: 1. Leadership is situational - A leader’s behavior and what is required of him will always be influenced by the situation. It means that a leader is able to assess a situation quickly, adjust to it, and provide the appropriate and necessary action to address it for the benefit of his followers. 2. Leadership is non-hierarchical - The exercise of leadership is not based on one’s position in an organizational chart alone, but also dependent on other factors such as characteristics, skills, and even connections. 3. Leadership is relational - Leaders and followers establish a relationship where their interests are mutually met. The role of a leader in this relationship can vary from being a visionary to a cheerleader. Followers in a relationship with their leaders often desire to belong to a bigger entity like a community, and their expectation of their leader is one who is genuine or authentic. This authenticity is expressed in behavioral terms that are communicated effectively and consistently to the followers.
Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory - Saint-Hilare (2008), in her paper discussing the various theories of leadership, mentions a theory involving the dynamics between a leader and his or her followers. First developed from the perspective of an original leader-member theory called the Vertical Dyad Linkage (VDL) Theory. This was first discussed in the works of Dansereau, Graen, and Haga (1975). Eventually, VDL further progressed into two more theories, and one of which is the Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory.
LMX Theory: It states that a leader’s effectiveness is measured by the quality of his relationship with his followers, and different types of relationships can evolve between leader and follower in a certain work situation. Another tenet of the theory is that there should be an exchange of resources between leader and follower that is meaningful and viewed by both parties as fair.
Heroic Leadership - Heroic Leadership: Best Practices From a 450-Year-Old Company That Changed the World by Chris Lowney (2003) He referred to the type of leadership that the members of the Society of Jesus live by. To this religious congregation of men, everyone is a leader and everyone gets a chance to lead and be leaders in everything they do.
Four Principles: 1. Self-awareness: Knowing and understanding fully our strengths and challenges, our way of looking at things, and even our emotions and the set of values that we live by. 2. Ingenuity: A leader of this type is not stuck in his comfort zone because the world is constantly changing. Flexibility and openness to new ideas are the hallmark of this kind of leadership. In the same manner, detachment from sources of pride and pleasure is also emphasized. 3. Love: A healthy self-concept generates a healthy and positive attitude when dealing with other people. You love or respect others when you love and respect yourself. What you do not have, you cannot share with others. Effective leaders show their respect for their followers. They are not merely people who follow them, but are partners in achieving the results they all desire. People who are respected, treated well, valued, and trusted by another always show their best as response to the genuine care being received. 4. Heroism: This type of leadership is about motivating and inspiring other people to reach for higher goals, for bigger and greater things.
Four Elements followers want from a leader (Goffee and Jones): 1. Authenticity - The leader is not afraid to show their weakness, reveals their human side without fear, and uses these together with their strengths to lead others. 2. Significance - A leader provides the reason or meaning for followers to believe in; 3. Excitement - A leader provides motivation and inspiration to his or her followers and excites them to pursue their vision; and 4. Community - A leader builds a community of followers with whom they can associate and forge relationships.
Goffee and Jones - Leadership is not for everyone. Leadership, they theorized, are for those who want to become leaders and are ready to take on the responsibilities of being one. They concluded that leadership is measured not merely by its results, but most importantly, on the way it provides meaning to the leadership cause.
The Why-How-What Types of Leadership - Gives meaning to why followers follow a leader..
Simon Sinek (2009) - A leader inspires people and gives them something to believe in. Examples of these kinds of leaders are Moses, who brought the people of his tribe out of Egyptian slavery; Martin Luther King, who inspired people with his speech “I Have a Dream”; Jose Rizal and Andres Bonifacio, who inspired our early ancestors to dream of freedom from Spanish colonialism. “Why?”: The most important question to ask first when leading others. Once “why?” is clearly established, the “How?” (the reason that will make a vision a reality), and the “What?” (the outcomes or results of the actions) will follow.
Why-How-What Leaders according to Sinek: “Why?”: Visionary leader; The one who believes results can be achieved. “How?”: Realist leader; Who is able to see or how to work out a vision. “What?” : Builder leader; Provides the details on how to get things done.
Social Relationships - Is a broad definition of how we interact and behave with other people, and how they interact and behave with us. Tend to be less intimate, with lesser self-disclosure involved, but may still be exclusive, and may demand certain levels of loyalty as in fraternities or religious organizations, and to a lesser extent loosely knitted social clubs like practitioners of certain specialized professions.
Daniel Goleman’s Social Intelligence Theory
Orbitofrontal Cortex (OFC) - Part of the human brain located just above the eyes, which is connected directly to the three major parts of the brain: the cortex, the amygdala and the brain stem. Provides an immediate connection between thoughts, emotions and behaviors. It immediately calculates our feelings and thoughts about a person and how the other person feels and thinks about us, and what actions we take after this quick assessment.
Social Influence Lisa Rashotte (2007): Things such as behaviors, actions, attitude, concepts, ideas, communications, wealth and other resources that bring about changes in the beliefs, attitudes and behavior of persons as a result of the action/s of another person. Happens as a result of interacting with other people who are perceived to be subject matter experts or of similar persuasion as the ones being influenced.
Varieties or Types of Social Influence by Herbert Kelman: 1. Compliance: Is when a person seems to agree, and follows what is requested or required of them to do or believe in, but does not necessarily have to really believe or agree to it. 2. Identification: Is when a person is influenced by someone he or she likes or looks up to, like a movie star, a social celebrity, or a superhero; 3. Internalization: Is when a person is able to own a certain belief or act, and is willing to make it known publicly and privately.
Other Types of Social Influence
Conformity (Pagsang-ayon) - A type of social influence that involves a change in behavior, belief, or thinking to be like others. It is the most common and pervasive form of social influence. Social psychology research in conformity tends to distinguish between two varieties: informational conformity (“internalization” in Kelman’s terms) and normative conformity (“compliance “ in Kelman’s terms). Very strong particularly among middle and late adolescents. An adolescent in that age group is most susceptible to a compelling need to seek approval from others and be accepted by them in order to become a friend and to belong to a social group. This tendency toward conformity among adolescents may lead to either positive or negative results, depending on the beliefs, intentions, and attitudes of the members of a group and the extent of their influence on an individual. Conformity is brought about by peer pressure, often imposed on the members of a group to demonstrate some semblance of loyalty, which is often deemed as necessary to maintain one’s relationship with the group. Conformity is one reason why group members look and behave similarly with one another such as wearing similar-looking clothes or enjoying the same movies and music genre, and adoring the same celebrities.
Conversion - Occurs when an individual whole-heartedly changes his or her original thinking and beliefs, actions and attitudes to align with those of the other members of the group. This also happens in the group when original beliefs, attitudes and behavior of the different members may have influenced each other to evolve into a new set of beliefs, attitudes and behaviors. Religious Conversions: Internalization happens to make a new set of beliefs, attitudes and actions become one’s own.
Minority Influence - When a bigger number of people are influenced by a much smaller number of people and when the minority’s way of looking and doing things are accepted. This may happen when the minority owns and wields power economically, politically and socially, or if the majority are uninvolved and detached from issues.
Reactance - Also known as anti- or non-conformity. There is a willing rejection of social influence being exerted on an individual or group. It is a reverse reaction to some social influence that is being imposed by a person or a group on another. Example: An adolescent who is being prevailed upon by the parents to stay at home during weekends and help in the house chores may react and develop a non-conforming behavior of not following their parents.
Obedience - Another form of social influence wherein a person follows what someone tells him or her to do, although it may not necessarily reflect the person’s set of beliefs or values. Similar to compliance, obedience usually stems from either respect or fear of the authority figure.
Persuasion - Used by one person or group to influence another to change their beliefs, actions or attitudes by appealing to reason or emotion.
Leadership and Followership Theories
Leadership (Pamumuno) - The action of leading a group of people or an organization.
Chester Barnard: The ability of a person in a position of authority to influence others to behave in such a manner that goals are achieved.
Leader - Often typecast as someone who is the head of a group of people by virtue of having great strength and wisdom, or may have inherited a position of power even if strength and wisdom were not part of this person’s virtues.
Power - Also annexed to leadership, and that a leader may obtain power through various means and sources, such as position, giving rewards, expertise, respect or coercion.
Theories of Leadership: 1. Trait Theory - Defines leadership based on certain personality traits that are generally suited for all leaders, such as decisiveness (katiyakan), persistence (pagtitiyaga), high level of self-confidence (kumpiyansa sa sarili) and assertiveness (pagpipilit), among others. 2. Behavioral Theory - This theory presupposes that leadership is a learned behavior, and that leaders are defined according to certain types of behavior they exhibit. 3. Participative Theory - The opposite of an autocratic leader (diktador na lider), this involves other people to make common decisions. 4. Situational Theory - Assumes that there is no one style of leadership and that leadership behavior is based on the factors present in a situation and, and usually takes into consideration how followers behave. 5. Transactional Theory - Leadership involves a transaction or negotiation or resources or position, and usually employs reward and punishment. 6. Transformational Theory - Involves a vision, which a leader uses to rally support from followers, and the role of the leader is in motivating others to support the vision and make it happen.
Authentic Leadership - Why Should Anyone Be Led by You?: What It Takes to Be an Authentic Leader by Rob Goffee and Gareth Jones (2006)
Three Basic Axioms of leadership: 1. Leadership is situational - A leader’s behavior and what is required of him will always be influenced by the situation. It means that a leader is able to assess a situation quickly, adjust to it, and provide the appropriate and necessary action to address it for the benefit of his followers. 2. Leadership is non-hierarchical - The exercise of leadership is not based on one’s position in an organizational chart alone, but also dependent on other factors such as characteristics, skills, and even connections. 3. Leadership is relational - Leaders and followers establish a relationship where their interests are mutually met. The role of a leader in this relationship can vary from being a visionary to a cheerleader. Followers in a relationship with their leaders often desire to belong to a bigger entity like a community, and their expectation of their leader is one who is genuine or authentic. This authenticity is expressed in behavioral terms that are communicated effectively and consistently to the followers.
Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory - Saint-Hilare (2008), in her paper discussing the various theories of leadership, mentions a theory involving the dynamics between a leader and his or her followers. First developed from the perspective of an original leader-member theory called the Vertical Dyad Linkage (VDL) Theory. This was first discussed in the works of Dansereau, Graen, and Haga (1975). Eventually, VDL further progressed into two more theories, and one of which is the Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory.
LMX Theory: It states that a leader’s effectiveness is measured by the quality of his relationship with his followers, and different types of relationships can evolve between leader and follower in a certain work situation. Another tenet of the theory is that there should be an exchange of resources between leader and follower that is meaningful and viewed by both parties as fair.
Heroic Leadership - Heroic Leadership: Best Practices From a 450-Year-Old Company That Changed the World by Chris Lowney (2003) He referred to the type of leadership that the members of the Society of Jesus live by. To this religious congregation of men, everyone is a leader and everyone gets a chance to lead and be leaders in everything they do.
Four Principles: 1. Self-awareness: Knowing and understanding fully our strengths and challenges, our way of looking at things, and even our emotions and the set of values that we live by. 2. Ingenuity: A leader of this type is not stuck in his comfort zone because the world is constantly changing. Flexibility and openness to new ideas are the hallmark of this kind of leadership. In the same manner, detachment from sources of pride and pleasure is also emphasized. 3. Love: A healthy self-concept generates a healthy and positive attitude when dealing with other people. You love or respect others when you love and respect yourself. What you do not have, you cannot share with others. Effective leaders show their respect for their followers. They are not merely people who follow them, but are partners in achieving the results they all desire. People who are respected, treated well, valued, and trusted by another always show their best as response to the genuine care being received. 4. Heroism: This type of leadership is about motivating and inspiring other people to reach for higher goals, for bigger and greater things.
Four Elements followers want from a leader (Goffee and Jones): 1. Authenticity - The leader is not afraid to show their weakness, reveals their human side without fear, and uses these together with their strengths to lead others. 2. Significance - A leader provides the reason or meaning for followers to believe in; 3. Excitement - A leader provides motivation and inspiration to his or her followers and excites them to pursue their vision; and 4. Community - A leader builds a community of followers with whom they can associate and forge relationships.
Goffee and Jones - Leadership is not for everyone. Leadership, they theorized, are for those who want to become leaders and are ready to take on the responsibilities of being one. They concluded that leadership is measured not merely by its results, but most importantly, on the way it provides meaning to the leadership cause.
The Why-How-What Types of Leadership - Gives meaning to why followers follow a leader..
Simon Sinek (2009) - A leader inspires people and gives them something to believe in. Examples of these kinds of leaders are Moses, who brought the people of his tribe out of Egyptian slavery; Martin Luther King, who inspired people with his speech “I Have a Dream”; Jose Rizal and Andres Bonifacio, who inspired our early ancestors to dream of freedom from Spanish colonialism. “Why?”: The most important question to ask first when leading others. Once “why?” is clearly established, the “How?” (the reason that will make a vision a reality), and the “What?” (the outcomes or results of the actions) will follow.
Why-How-What Leaders according to Sinek: “Why?”: Visionary leader; The one who believes results can be achieved. “How?”: Realist leader; Who is able to see or how to work out a vision. “What?” : Builder leader; Provides the details on how to get things done.
