Achilles' Guilt by James A. Arieti Summary

Achilles' Guilt

Introduction

• When individuals experience feelings not shared by others, separation occurs. If these feelings are not shared by a group, alienation results. This divergence in emotional experience can lead to a sense of isolation and disconnect.

• Dismissing separation is easier when dealing with equals, but alienation from a group is more complex. Overcoming individual separation is often straightforward, but alienation from a collective poses significant challenges.

• Alienation may be voluntary or compulsory, requiring questioning of the group's standards. Individuals may choose to alienate themselves, or they may be forced into alienation, prompting a reconsideration of established norms.

• Rejecting group standards implies superiority, a daring step for humans, necessitating the assertion of new standards through rationalization or individual will. Challenging societal norms suggests a position of moral or intellectual dominance, demanding the establishment of alternative values through logical justification or personal conviction.

• The Iliad shows separation in Book 1 and alienation in Book 9.

Book 1: Separation

• Achilles argues with Agamemnon over Briseis. The dispute is centered on issues of honor, power, and entitlement.

• The assembly provides context for their agon, balancing their superiorities and portraying them as equals. The gathering offers background, уравновешивая their power and highlighting their equality.

• Achilles, a king and son of a deity, is personally strong. Achilles possesses inherent strength and divine lineage.

• Agamemnon is a greater king with more power. Agamemnon wields broader authority as the preeminent ruler.

• Their argument uses terms comprehensible to each other and the audience. The debate employs language understandable to all parties.

• Agamemnon threatens to take Briseis, meaningful only if Achilles accepts quantitative honor, where worth is proportional to prizes. Agamemnon's threat is potent only if Achilles values honor based on material wealth.

• Achilles insults Agamemnon's courage, effective only if both accept the same honor standard. Achilles's taunts regarding Agamemnon's bravery resonate only if both adhere to similar standards of honor.

• Achilles withdraws from battle with his troops and considers sailing home but does not reject societal standards. Achilles removes himself from combat, contemplating a return home without challenging societal expectations.

• No one criticizes his decision, as Phoenix notes (9.515-25). Achilles's choice goes uncriticized, according to Phoenix.

• Modern readers may see Achilles' withdrawal as unpatriotic, but this is anachronistic. Contemporary audiences might view Achilles's departure as unpatriotic, but this interpretation is historically inaccurate.

• I. A. Richards suggests a parallel to national withdrawals in wars, like the Irish in the world wars. I. A. Richards draws parallels between Achilles's withdrawal and national departures from conflicts, such as the Irish during the world wars.

• The Trojan War was fought over honor; it's inconsistent to rebuke Achilles for accepting the same standard. One of the originalities in Homer is the movement from shame-culture to guilt-culture. Since E. R. Dodds' book, scholars have been accustomed to think of the Iliad as a shame culture. The Trojan War revolved around honor; thus, criticizing Achilles for upholding similar values is contradictory. Homer's originality lies in the transition from a culture of shame to one of guilt, a concept explored by scholars following E. R. Dodds's work.

The Origins of Guilt in Achilles

• Homer originates the movement from shame to guilt in Achilles. Homer initiates Achilles's evolution from a culture of shame to one of guilt.

• Achilles achieves moral heroism by discovering guilt, surpassing other Greek warriors. Achilles attains moral greatness by embracing guilt, surpassing his fellow Greek warriors.

• The word aidos (shame) appears twice in Book 9.

• Phoenix speaks of divine aidos: feeling reverential shame before a just and merciful deity. Phoenix discusses aidos as a sense of reverence before a fair and compassionate god.

• Ajax applies aidos to human existence: having aidos for one's house and caring for guests. Ajax extends aidos to human interactions: valuing one’s home and tending to guests.

• Achilles rejects both human and divine aidos, rejecting the shame-culture. Achilles dismisses both human and divine forms of aidos, thus rejecting the values of a shame-based society.

• Rejecting societal values is bold, especially without knowing another system. Discarding societal values is courageous, especially without an alternative framework.

• This is the hamartia and transgression Phoenix warns against (9.501). This action embodies the error and transgression that Phoenix cautions against.

• Achilles ventures into a land of no values, exploring the origins of guilt-culture. Achilles delves into a realm devoid of established values, probing the genesis of a guilt-oriented culture.

• After rejecting honor (ZLil') and pity (EhEog), Achilles reveals his new state through several ways;