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Variation In English

English Language and Linguistics

  • Focus on the variation in English language

Dialects

  • Idiolect

    • Unique language characteristics of an individual speaker.

  • Dialects

    • Different groups speaking the same language who express it differently.

    • Systematic differences lead to dialects of a language.

    • Dialects are mutually intelligible forms differing systematically.

Differentiating Speech Communities

  • Examining whether speech community differences reflect dialects or languages:

    • Danish, Norwegian, Swedish: Separate languages despite mutual intelligibility.

    • Hindi and Urdu: Mutually intelligible yet categorized as different languages.

    • Mandarin and Cantonese: Distinct languages, referred to as dialects due to shared writing system.

Regional Dialects

  • The character of language in geographically specific regions leads to regional dialects.

  • American English: Influenced by settlers from various English dialects in the 17th-18th centuries.

    • Major dialect areas emerged by the American Revolution:

      • Northern Dialect: New England & Hudson River.

      • Midland Dialect: Pennsylvania.

      • Southern Dialect: Southern states.

Discussion on Accents

  • Reflections on personal experiences with accents:

    • Associations with the term "accent" and perceptions.

    • Personal preferences or difficulties with understanding specific accents.

    • Impact of accent on social judgment and treatment.

Accents Defined

  • Regional Phonological Distinctions: Accents (e.g., Boston, Brooklyn, Midwestern).

  • Speech characteristics linked to geographic or sociolinguistic backgrounds.

  • Contrast between regional accents and the accents of non-native speakers.

Phonological Differences in Dialects

  • Pronunciation variations in UK vs. American English:

    • RP dialect emphasizes 'h' sounds; American English may drop them (e.g., "herb").

    • Instances of phonetic distinctions in daily vocabulary.

Lexical Differences

  • Distinctions in terminology between British and American English:

    • Lift vs. elevator, petrol vs. gas, public school vs. private school.

    • Regional variations in words like soda, freeway, and others across dialects.

Syntactic Differences

  • Examples showcasing American English syntax:

    • Usage of “have them come” vs. “have them to come.”

    • Double modals in American grammar.

  • Syntactic deletion examples highlighting mutual intelligibility across dialects.

Social Dialects

  • Influences of socioeconomic status, religion, race, and gender on dialect variation:

    • Different Arabic varieties spoken by religious groups in Baghdad.

    • Caste distinctions influencing Hindi, Gujarati, and Bengali use in India.

    • Unique dialects among African American communities and other ethnic groups.

The Standard Dialect

  • Definition and implications of standard dialects:

    • Standard American English (SAE) seen as the dominant form but not precisely defined.

    • Historical context of BBC and RP English in relation to regional dialects.

    • Social implications of adopting standard dialects.

African American English

  • Spoken by many Americans of African descent, shaped by historical context.

  • Significant presence in casual speech contexts among working-class individuals.

  • Middle-class African Americans increasingly adopting SAE due to socio-economic mobility.

Latino (Hispanic) English

  • No single Latino dialect; variations exist among different Hispanic communities.

  • Chicano English (ChE) identified as a distinct dialect group.

Genderlects

  • Features of women's speech identified by Lakoff (1973):

    • Use of hedging, tag questions, and politeness strategies.

    • Gender influence on conversational dynamics in mixed-gender settings.

Sociolinguistic Analysis

  • Labov's study on socio-class influences in dialect pronunciation in New York.

  • Examples of pronunciation frequency based on socioeconomic status.

Languages in Contact

  • Historical significance of language encounters through trade and migration.

  • Solutions developed for bridging communication gaps in multilingual areas.

Lingua Francas

  • Definition and historical context of lingua franca usage in various regions:

    • English as a modern lingua franca.

    • Other historical lingua francas like French, Russian, and Latin.

Contact Languages: Pidgins and Creoles

  • Definition of pidgin languages in socio-political contexts.

  • Historical context of pidgin evolution through European colonial languages.

  • Creoles described as native languages evolving from pidgins.

Language in Use

  • Knowledge of the linguistic structure (phonology, morphology, syntax) and its social application.

Styles

  • Variation in language use based on context leads to style differences.

  • Style characterized by structured informal language, not chaos.

Slang

  • Characteristics of slang: metaphorical, playful, and often short-lived.

  • Contributions of new words and meanings through slang evolution.

Jargon/Argot

  • Importance of jargon in specialized communications across various fields, promoting clarity.

Euphemism

  • Role of euphemisms in language to avoid unpleasant topics.

  • Reflects the connotative meaning and societal values surrounding sensitive subjects.