Human Biology Review

Urinary System

• Functions of the Urinary System
    - Excretion of metabolic waste
    - Maintenance of water, salt balance.

• Function of Bladder
    - Stores urine
    - Urination, also known as micturition.

• Distinction Between Excretion and Defecation
    - Excretion refers to the removal of waste products through urine.
    - Defecation refers to the elimination of solid waste from the digestive tract.

Reproductive System

• Development
    - Maturity of reproductive organs occurs during puberty.
    - Male reproductive system includes:
      - Testes: primary male reproductive organs producing sperm and sex hormones.
      - Urethra: conducts urine and semen out of the body.
      

• Age of Puberty
    - Boys typically enter puberty between 12-16 years old.
    - Girls typically enter puberty between 10-14 years old.

• Function of Ovaries
    - Produce eggs (oocytes) with 23 chromosomes.
    - Hormonal functions: production of estrogen and progesterone.

• Fertilization and Implantation
    - Location of fertilization: fallopian tubes (oviduct, uterine tube).
    - Location of implantation: endometrium wall of the uterus.
  

• Ovulation Process
    - After ovulation, the follicle transforms into the corpus luteum which produces hormones necessary for maintaining pregnancy.

• Spermatogenesis
    - Location: seminiferous tubules in the testes.

• Pap Test
    - A screening procedure for cervical cancer.

• Birth Control Methods
    - Abstinence
    - Hormonal pills/patches
    - Intrauterine devices (IUD)
    - Diaphragm
    - Condoms
    - Implants and patches.

• Assisted Reproductive Technologies
    - Artificial insemination
    - In vitro fertilization (IVF)
    - Intrauterine insemination
    - Transferral of donor embryos.

• Causes of Infertility in Males
    - Low sperm count
    - Abnormal sperm morphology or motility.

• External Female Genital Organs
    - Vulva
    - Labia majora
    - Glans clitoris
    - Urethra.

Digestive System

• Function of the Liver
    - Production of bile for digestion of fats.
    - Detoxification of substances.

• Function of the Stomach
    - Secretion of hydrochloric acid for digestion.
    - Mechanical and chemical digestion processes.

• Distinction Between Mechanical and Chemical Digestion
    - Mechanical digestion involves physical breakdown of food (e.g., chewing).
    - Chemical digestion involves enzymatic breakdown of food substances.

• Function of the Digestive System
    - Break down food into nutrients
    - Absorption of these nutrients into the bloodstream.

• Dental Caries
    - Commonly known as cavities caused by bacterial activity.

• Peristalsis
    - Wave-like muscle contractions that move food through the digestive tract.

• Chyme and Bolus
    - Chyme: thick, soupy food mixture found in the stomach after digestion.
    - Bolus: chewed food that is swallowed.

• Function of the Small Intestine
    - Villi present for increased absorption surface area.
    - Digestion and absorption of nutrients.

• Colon
    - Absorption of water and electrolytes
    - Polyp growth as a potential risk for colon cancer.

Body Mass Index (BMI)

• BMI Numbers
    - Ranges categorized as underweight, normal weight, overweight, and obesity based on weight and height.

• Function of Sphincters
    - Control the passage of material through the digestive tract.

Eating Disorders

• Types of Eating Disorders
    - Anorexia
    - Bulimia
    - Muscle dysmorphia (preoccupation with muscle size and body composition).

Respiratory System

• Main Function
    - Involvement in gas exchange (oxygen and carbon dioxide) in the body.

• Parts of the Upper Respiratory Tract
    - Larynx (voice box)
    - Pharynx
    - Epiglottis (prevents food from entering trachea).

• Voice Production
    - Vocal cords within the larynx vibrate to produce sound.
    - Glottis: opening between vocal cords affecting pitch.

• Ventilation
    - Involves inhalation, exhalation, and air movement.

• Gas Exchange Location
    - Occurs in the alveoli of the lungs.

• Heimlich Maneuver
    - First aid technique used to dislodge food or foreign objects obstructing the airway.

• Tonsils
    - Part of the immune system located in the throat; help trap pathogens.

• Surfactant
    - Substance that decreases surface tension in the alveoli, preventing collapse during breathing.

• Vital Capacity vs. Tidal Volume
    - Vital Capacity: maximum amount of air that can be inhaled or exhaled
    - Tidal Volume: amount of air inhaled or exhaled during normal breathing.

• Pleurisy
    - Inflammation of the pleura, the lining surrounding the lungs.

• Location of Trachea
    - Extends from the larynx to the bronchi, conducting air to the lungs.