Study guide

Chapter 1
Major Themes of Anatomy and Physiology
I. Know the definitions of anatomy and physiology.
II. Homeostasis
A. Know the definition of homeostasis.
B. Be able to provide examples of factors that must be maintained via homeostasis.
C. Understand the difference between negative feedback and positive feedback.
1. Understand why negative feedback is much more common than positive feedback.
D. Understand that the physiological processes that occur in our bodies (which we will be studying for the rest of the semester) ARE the mechanisms that are employed to accomplish negative feedback and, therefore, homeostasis. (Some physiological processes, such as reproduction, are not directly related to maintaining homeostasis, but most are.)
Chapter 3
Cellular Form and Function
I. Plasma Membrane
A. Know the basic functions of the plasma membrane.
B. Membrane Proteins
1. Know the various types of membrane proteins.
a) Receptors – bind chemical messengers such as hormones. Usually specific for one kind of chemical messenger.
b) Enzymes – you know what enzymes are. These are just membrane- bound enzymes.
c) Channel Proteins – understand the difference between leak channels and gated channels. Know the three kinds of gated channels and what causes them to open/close.
d) Carrier Proteins – proteins that help to move molecules across the plasma membrane. They may help molecules diffuse down their concentration gradient (facilitated diffusion), or they may move molecules against their concentration gradient (active transport). If they work against a concentration gradient, they are called pumps and they require ATP.
e) Cell-Identity Markers – understand the importance of these glycoproteins (see also above in section V.D.)
f) Cell-Adhesion Molecules – understand what these do.

II. Membrane Transport
A. Know what is meant by the term selectively permeable.
B. Understand the difference between passive and active transport (which one requires energy?)
C. Diffusion – Know the definition. Understand this concept, and know the factors that might affect the rate of diffusion through a membrane.
D. Osmosis – Know the definition. Understand this concept, and know the name of the type of pore that water moves through.
E. Understand what the terms isotonic, hypertonic, and hypotonic mean, and be able to tell me the direction of water movement (osmosis) if a cell is placed in a solution exhibiting any of these conditions.
F. Know the definitions of facilitated diffusion and active transport, and know the differences between the two.
G. Know what the sodium-potassium pump is. Know which ions it pumps, and in which direction (into or out of the cell). Know the functions of this pump, and understand why it is so important.
H. Vesicular Transport - Know the difference between endocytosis and exocytosis.
Chapter 12
Nervous Tissue
I. Understand that both the nervous system and the endocrine system are involved in regulating and coordinating our physiology.
II. Understand the three broad descriptions of what the nervous system has to do:
A. Receive information about the internal and external environments – this is done by the sensory neurons in the afferent division of the peripheral nervous system.
B. Process the information and determine if a response is necessary – this is done by the interneurons of the central nervous system.
C. Send commands to carry out responses – this is done by the motor neurons in the efferent division of the peripheral nervous system.
III. Know the difference between the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system.
IV. Know about the structure of neurons. Know the definitions and functions/importance of each of the following: soma, dendrites, axon, axon hillock, myelin sheath, node of Ranvier, internode, axon terminal. Be able to identify each of these on a diagram.
V. Myelin – Understand the function of myelin.
VI. Know the factors that affect the speed of conduction along nerves.
VII. Electrical Potentials
A. Understand what the terms electrical potential, electrical current, polarized, and resting membrane potential mean.
B. Know that the RMP of neurons is -70 mV. Know that this means that the inside of the cell is more negative.

C. Understand that, even though we have some diffusion of K+ out of the cell and some diffusion of Na+ into the cell, there is still, overwhelmingly, more Na+ on the outside of the cell compared to inside and more K+ inside the cell than outside the cell.
E. Know the terms depolarization and hyperpolarization.
VIII. Electrical Signals
A. Understand what a local potential is and where on the neuron they will occur.
B. Understand what an action potential is and where on the neuron they will occur. Know the steps involved in an action potential. Know that an electrical signal along an axon is the result of successive axon potentials occurring down the length of the axon, each triggering one another as they occur.
C. Understand how the transmission of electrical signals along successive neurons involves alternating usage of local potentials and action potentials.
IX. Signal Conduction
A. Know how signals are conducted down myelinated axons vs. unmyelinated axons.
X. Synapses
A. Know what a synapse is.
B. Know the structure of a synapse, including the definitions/importance of the following: Presynaptic Neuron, Postsynaptic Neuron, Synaptic Cleft, Axon Terminal, Synaptic Vesicles, Neurotransmitter, Neurotransmitter Receptor. Be able to identify each of these on a diagram.
C. Know what a neurotransmitter is.
D. Know the steps involved in synaptic transmission in an excitatory cholinergic synapse.
E. Know how neurotransmitters can be disposed of to cause cessation of their signal.
Chapter 13
The Spinal Cord, Spinal Nerves, and Somatic Reflexes
I. Somatic Reflexes
A. Know the definition of a reflex.
B. Know that reflexes involving skeletal muscle are called somatic reflexes.
C. Know the path of a typical somatic reflex arc.
D. Know what muscle spindles are. Know where they are located. Know about their structure. Know what they do.
Chapter 15
The Autonomic Nervous System and Visceral Reflexes
I. Understand that the autonomic nervous system (ANS) is one of the two divisions of the efferent (motor) nervous system and that it functions in regulating the activities of glands, cardiac muscle and smooth muscle. (The other division of the efferent nervous system is the somatic motor division, which controls skeletal muscle contractions.)
II. Understand that this is an involuntary system.

III. Understand that glands, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle do not need input from the ANS to function but rather to adjust their activity. For example the heart will continue to beat without input from the ANS, but the rate and strength of heart beats will be adjusted by the ANS.
IV. Know that the ANS can be divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.
A. The sympathetic division is associated with physical activity, stress, or fight-or-flight situations, while the parasympathetic division is associated with times of calmness and rest.
B. Many organs will receive both sympathetic and parasympathetic input (known as dual innervation), and in most cases the two divisions will have opposing (antagonistic) effects on the target tissue.
C. In some cases, organs will only receive input from the sympathetic division. In these cases, an enhancement of signals through sympathetic pathways will enhance activity in the gland/muscle, while a reduction or elimination of signals through sympathetic pathways will decrease activity in the gland/muscle.
Chapter 16
Sense Organs
I. Know the definition of a sensory receptor. Understand that some receptors are simply nerve endings, while others are specialized cells that are adjacent to afferent neurons.
II. Know that the function of sensory receptors is to convert a stimulus into electrical signals. Know the name for that process.
III. Classification of Receptors – Know how receptors can be categorized according to stimulus modality (e.g. photoreceptors, chemoreceptors, etc.).
Chapter 11
Muscular Tissue
I. Know that skeletal muscle is voluntary. Know why we see striations in skeletal muscle.
II. Know the details about the structure of skeletal muscle fibers. Know what the following are: sarcoplasm, myofibrils, sarcoplasmic reticulum, sarcolemma, T tubules, myoglobin, glycogen.
III. Know the names of the two major kinds of myofilaments. Be able to describe the structure of thick filaments and thin filaments.
IV. Striations – Know what the Z lines are and what is anchored to them. Know what a sarcomere is. Understand that the Z lines are pulled closer to one another during contraction.
V. What do we call the neurons that innervate skeletal muscle cells? Know what a motor unit is.
VI. Neuromuscular Junctions
A. Know what a neuromuscular junction is.

B. Know about and be able to label the following on a diagram: axon terminal, synaptic cleft, junctional folds, synaptic vesicles, acetylcholine receptors, motor nerve fiber, muscle cell.
C. Know which neurotransmitter is secreted onto skeletal muscle.
D. Know what acetylcholinesterase is and what it does.
VII. Contraction of Muscle Fibers
A. Know the four major phases of contraction.
B. Know (and understand) the steps involved in each of the phases.
Chapter 17
The Endocrine System
I. Understand that both the nervous system and the endocrine system regulate and coordinate the activities of our bodies. Understand how they are complementary.
II. Know what hormones are and how they are transported.
III. Know the other methods of cell-to-cell communication.
IV. Know the differences between endocrine glands and exocrine glands.
V. Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland
A. Know about the anatomy of the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland.
B. Know how the hypothalamus and posterior pituitary are related both structurally and functionally.
C. Know how the hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary are related both structurally and functionally.
D. Know the two hypothalamic hormones that get secreted via the posterior pituitary.
1. Know the functions of oxytocin.
2. Know the functions of ADH.
E. Know the names of the hypothalamic hormones that are released solely to affect the activity of the anterior pituitary. Know what effect each has on the anterior pituitary.
F. Know the names of the hormones that are released from the anterior pituitary. Know the functions of each of these hormones, and, where applicable, know the tissues these hormones target.
VI. Prolactin – Know the functions as provided.
VII. Thyroid Hormone – Know the functions as provided.
VIII. Adrenal Glands
A. Glucocorticoids – Know the functions of glucocorticoids.
B. Aldosterone – Know the functions of aldosterone. Know how its release is regulated.
IX. Pancreatic Islets
A. Know what the islets of Langerhans are.
B. Know when glucagon is released and what its functions are.
C. Know when insulin is released and what its functions are.
X. Endocrine Disorders
A. Know the terms hyposecretion and hypersecretion.
B. Thyroid Gland Disorders
1. Know what a goiter is. Know why it develops if iodine is not available.

2. Hashimoto’s Disease – Know cause, know symptoms.
3. Grave’s Disease – Know cause, know symptoms.
C. Diabetes Mellitus
1. Know the difference between Type I and Type II.
Chapter 19
The Circulatory System: Heart
I. Know about, understand, and be able to explain the cardiac conduction system.
II. Know what the terms systole and diastole mean.
III. Understand and be able to explain why cells in the SA node have an inherent rhythmicity to the production of electrical signals.
IV. Know the steps involved when action potentials occur in cardiac muscle cells. Know the significance of the calcium plateau and the long refractory period.
V. Electrocardiogram – Know what the different parts of the ECG are called, and know how they relate to the activity of the heart.
VI. Cardiac Output
A. Know what cardiac output is, and know the two factors can affect cardiac output.
B. Know what bradycardia and tachycardia are.
C. Know the Frank-Starling law.
Chapter 20
The Circulatory System: Blood Vessels and Circulation
I. Know the three main categories of blood vessels and the main function of each.
II. Know what a capillary bed is, and know how flow to particular capillaries can be regulated.
III. Blood Pressure
A. Know what systolic pressure and diastolic pressure are.
B. Know what pulse pressure is.
C. Know what mean arterial pressure is and how it can be calculated.
D. Know how gravity can affect blood pressure.
E. Know that blood pressure is determined by cardiac output, blood volume, and resistance to flow.
IV. Regulation of Blood Pressure and Flow - Know how aldosterone, angiotensin II, and antidiuretic hormone might affect blood pressure.
V. Venous Return
A. Know the definition of venous return.
B. Know the five mechanisms that assist with venous return.

Chapter 22
The Respiratory System
I. Know what alveoli are and that they are the site of gas exchange.
II. Pulmonary Ventilation – Know definition, know what a respiratory cycle is, and know, in a general sense, why air flows in and out. Know the muscles that drive respiration.
III. Understand how the various pressures are related to airflow.
IV. Resistance to Airflow
A. Know the two factors that can affect resistance to airflow.
B. Understand the role of pulmonary surfactant in overcoming alveolar surface tension to allow for greater compliance.
C. Know what infant respiratory distress syndrome is.
V. Know that movements of gases into and out of the blood are driven by differences in partial pressures of those gases. (Know what a partial pressure is.)
VI. Oxygen Transport – Know the two ways that oxygen is carried and the relative amounts associated with each. Know what the utilization coefficient refers to.
VII. Carbon Dioxide Transport - Know the three ways that carbon dioxide is carried and the relative amounts associated with each. Know the details associated with carbon dioxide is carried and the relative amounts associated with each. known the details associated with carbon dioxide loading and oxygen unloading, and understanding how the exchanges of those two gases are related to one another.

VIII. Know what acidosis and alkalosis are, and know (and understand) how we can adjust the pH through respiration. This involves knowing the chemical reaction for when the carbon dioxide reacts with water.
loading and oxygen unloading, and understand how the exchanges of those two gases are
related to one another.
VIII. Know what acidosis and alkalosis are, and know (and understand) how we can adjust the
pH through respiration. This involves knowing the chemical reaction for when carbon