AP U.S. Government & Politics Lecture Notes

AP U.S. GOVERNMENT & POLITICS: Citizens United v. F.E.C. (2010)

  • FACTS

    • The Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA) of 2002 prohibited corporations and unions from independent political spending within certain timeframes: 60 days prior to a general election and 30 days before a primary election.

    • The BCRA also prohibited direct contributions from corporations to campaigns or political parties.

    • In 2008, Citizens United, a conservative non-profit, was restricted by the Federal Election Commission (F.E.C.) from showing its anti-Hillary film, "Hillary: The Movie."

  • ISSUES

    1. Can the political speech of corporations, labor unions, and associations be banned?

    2. Can direct contributions by corporations, labor unions, and associations be banned?

  • HOLDING

    • The Supreme Court ruled that corporations are considered people, thus restricting corporate funding of independent political expenditures is unconstitutional.

    • Corporations, unions, and associations are allowed to raise and spend unlimited amounts of money for independent expenditures.

    • The Court upheld the BCRA's ban on corporate contributions to candidates.

    • This decision led to the establishment of Independent-Expenditure-Only Committees, known as Super PACs.

    • The ruling invalidated portions of BCRA, including the ban on soft money and restrictions on the timing of political advertisements.

  • IMPACT

    • The decision significantly increased the amount of money flowing into political campaigns, allowing significant financial influence in elections, raising concerns regarding the integrity of elections and the potential for "buying" elections.

  • REASONING

    • The ruling was based on the First Amendment's Free Speech Clause, which grants corporations the right to engage in political speech like individuals.

    • This has led to substantial financial influence in campaigns, thereby increasing concerns over the consequences of money in politics.

  • VOCABULARY

    • Independent Political Expenditures: Spending on political speech that is not coordinated with a campaign.

    • Direct Political Contributions: Monetary donations made directly to political campaigns.

    • Political Action Committee (PAC): An organization that raises money to support political candidates.

    • Independent-Expenditure-Only Committee (Super PAC): Similar to a PAC but can accept contributions from corporations and unions and cannot directly contribute to campaigns.

UNIT 5 NOTES: Political Participation

TOPIC 5.1: VOTING RIGHTS & MODELS OF VOTING BEHAVIOR

  • 14th Amendment: Grants birthright citizenship to all persons born in the U.S.

  • 15th Amendment: Prohibits race as a barrier to voting.

  • 17th Amendment: Allows for the direct election of Senators.

  • 19th Amendment: Prohibits sex/gender as a barrier to voting.

  • 24th Amendment: Abolishes poll taxes.

    • The combination of the 24th Amendment and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 resulted in a significant increase in black voter turnout.

  • 26th Amendment: Lowers the voting age to 18.

  • Voting Models:

    • Rational Choice Voting: Voting based on perceived individual interests.

    • Retrospective Voting: Voting that decides whether a current party or candidate should be retained based on recent performance.

    • Prospective Voting: Voting based on predictions about how a party or candidate is expected to perform in the future.

    • Straight-Ticket Voting: Voting for all candidates from one political party across the ballot.

TOPIC 5.2: VOTER TURNOUT

  • Structural Barriers: Rules or policies that hinder the ability to vote.

    • States are responsible for federal elections and voter registration laws.

    • Automatic registration, online registration options, and strict photo ID laws vary by state.

    • Voter Fraud: The act of casting illegal votes, including in-person registration issues.

    • Early voting and absentee/mail-in voting rules differ greatly between states.

    • Voter Suppression: Tactics used to discourage specific populations from voting, often influenced by differences in funding for polling places and poll workers.

TOPIC 5.3: POLITICAL PARTIES

  • Political parties play a key role in elections by creating a platform, recruiting candidates, and managing campaigns.

  • The shifting nature of political parties can align with changing demographics and new voter preferences.

TOPIC 5.4: HOW AND WHY POLITICAL PARTIES CHANGE AND ADAPT

  • The rise of candidate-centered politics where voters may prioritize the individual candidates over party affiliation.

  • Parties must adapt their messaging and policies to fit changing demographics.

  • Sectional Elections: Elections leading to long-lasting shifts in party compositions and affiliations.

  • Regional Shifts: Notable changes where the South has transitioned from a Democratic stronghold to a Republican bastion.

TOPIC 5.5: THIRD-PARTY POLITICS

  • The U.S. Constitution does not mention political parties.

  • Structural Barriers: Laws often disadvantage third parties; winner-take-all electoral systems ensure the dominance of major parties.

  • Proportional Representation: A system that provides representation corresponding to the number of votes received by each party, contrasted with the U.S. system.

  • Plurality System: Requires a candidate to receive the most votes to win, typically without needing a majority.

TOPIC 5.6: INTEREST GROUPS INFLUENCING POLICYMAKING

  • Interest groups aim to influence public policy, often by lobbying government officials.

  • Methods include testifying at congressional committee hearings and proposing amendments to legislation.

  • Free Rider Problem: The challenge where individuals benefit from the work of interest groups without being a member.

  • Revolving Door: The practice of former congressional members becoming lobbyists.

TOPIC 5.7: GROUPS INFLUENCING POLICY OUTCOMES

  • Single-Issue Groups: Focused on one specific area of policy.

  • Social Movements: Broadly-based citizen groups working for policy change, often lacking strong leadership or resources.

  • Civil Disobedience: The act of purposefully breaking the law as a non-violent protest.

TOPIC 5.8: ELECTING A PRESIDENT

  • General Election: Determines who will hold the political office.

  • Primary System: Allows party members to nominate candidates for the general election, taking place from January to June of election years.

    • Types of primaries include open (any registered voter can participate) and closed (only registered party members can vote).

    • Caucus: A meeting for party members to select a candidate for the general election.

  • The party convention officially nominates the presidential candidate and adopts the party platform.

TOPIC 5.9: CONGRESSIONAL ELECTIONS

  • Electoral College: Represents the electors who officially elect the president, requiring 270 electoral votes to win from a total of 538.

    • Allocation of electoral votes corresponds to the number of representatives plus senators in each state, leading to underrepresentation of smaller states.

  • Swing States: Candidates focus on these competitive states for electoral victory.

  • Incumbency Advantage: Sitting incumbents typically have an advantage, with reelection rates exceeding 90% often attributed to factors such as media visibility, experience, and name recognition.

TOPIC 5.10: MODERN CAMPAIGNS

  • Political Consultants: Hired professionals assisting in media strategy, fundraising, and polling.

  • The evolution of campaigns leads to increased reliance on Super PACs post-Citizens United decision, allowing for significant independent expenditure.

TOPIC 5.11: CAMPAIGN FINANCE

  • Hard Money: Regulated contributions made directly to candidates.

  • Soft Money: Unregulated funds contributed to political parties for general purposes.

  • The Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA) of 2002 aimed to limit soft money and regulate political advertising but faced significant changes due to the Citizens United ruling, which allowed corporations and unions to spend unlimited funds independently.

TOPIC 5.12: THE MEDIA

  • Media performs various roles:

    • Gatekeeper: Selects which issues to cover and for how long.

    • Agenda Setting: Focuses public attention on specific issues, pressuring policymakers.

    • Watchdog: Engages in investigative journalism to hold power accountable.

    • Scorekeeper: Frames politics in terms of wins and losses, often leading to horse-race journalism.

  • There is a growing reliance on social media, which complicates the credibility and quality of news consumed.

TOPIC 5.13: CHANGING MEDIA

  • The landscape of news media is shifting, with a significant increase in available sources but challenges regarding user trust and bias.

  • Consumer-Driven Media: Primarily focuses on profit, often prioritizing sensational stories over substantive journalism.