Memory Codes

Format of Information Encoded in Memory

  • Information can be encoded in various formats:

    • Visual

    • Auditory

    • Semantic

Experimental Data on Item Recall

  • Results of item recall tests:

    • Visual input recall results:

    • Items Correct: 0, 0, 8, 7

    • Auditory input recall results:

    • Items Correct: 1, 0, 1

    • Trials recorded from participants: 0 through 10, indicating number of trials for testing memory.

Levels of Processing Theory

Overview of the Theory

  • Levels of Processing Theory posited by Craik & Tulving (1975) states:

    • The depth at which information is processed affects how well it can be recalled, with deeper processing leading to better retention.

Study Procedure

  • Participants are shown 18 words, each followed by a question.

  • They must respond with "yes" or "no" based on whether the word fits the question asked.

Sample Questions from Experiment

  1. Does it rhyme with stick? (Example word: PARTY)

  2. Is it typed in small letters? (Example word: TREE)

  3. Does it fit in the sentence, "A ____ swam in the pond"? (Example word: DUCK)

  4. Other questions include:

    • Whether the word rhymes with certain sounds or fits in specific sentences.

Results of the Recall Task

  • Participants are asked to recall as many of the 18 words as possible after completion of questions.

  • Example responses may include recalling words such as YES, NO, SNOW, MARKET, etc.

Elaboration and Memory

Hypotheses for Enhanced Memory

1. Elaboration

  • Proposes that increasing the amount of information or complexity of information enhances memory retention.

    • Example shows the effect of sentence complexity on recall ability (Cued recall vs. Noncued recall).

    • Graph Recovery:

    • Proportion of words recalled increases with sentence complexity:

      • Simple sentence: “She cooked the”

      • Medium complexity: “The ripe”

      • Complex: “The small lady angrily picked up the red.”

2. Distinctiveness

  • Items that are distinct from their context are easier to remember.

    • Types of distinctiveness include:

    • Primary Distinctiveness: differences from immediate context.

    • Secondary Distinctiveness: differences from items stored in long-term memory.

    • Orthographic Distinctiveness: variations in word shape.

    • Emotional Distinctiveness: items causing intense emotional reactions.

Encoding and Retrieval

Key Concepts in Memory Retrieval

1. Encoding Specificity

  • The effectiveness of a retrieval cue depends on the conditions under which the memory was initially encoded.

2. Mood-Dependent Memory

  • Suggests recall is better when an individual's mood at retrieval matches their mood at encoding.

3. Transfer-Appropriate Processing

  • Proposes that memory is best when the conditions of encoding match the conditions of retrieval.

Experiment on Word Recall

  • Participants are presented with words one at a time, attempting to memorize as many as possible for later recall.

    • Words presented from study included BED, CLOCK, DREAM, NIGHT, etc.

Analysis of Recall

Recall Performance

  • Participants may be tested on:

    • Primacy Effect: tendency to recall items presented early in a list more effectively.

    • Recency Effect: tendency to recall items presented late in a list.

    • The impact of factors like repetition, rehearsal, distinctiveness, and semantic organization on recall accuracy is emphasized, alongside the phenomenon of false memory effects.

Sample Words from the Recall Experiment

  • Memory list consisted of various words relevant to health and sleep, including:

    • BED, CLOCK, NIGHT, ARTICHOKE, INSOMNIA, PILLOW, etc.

Performance Reflection

  • Participants might express their recall of specific example words and connect them to effective memory strategies.

Conclusions

  • Study highlights the importance of different layers of processing to memory retention.

  • It concludes with the notion that distinctiveness and the emotional impact of words contribute significantly to memory retrieval accuracy.

Recap of Memory Recall Effects

  • Primacy Effect: Refers to better recall of items presented at the beginning of a list.

  • Recency Effect: Refers to better recall of items presented at the end of a list.

  • Repetition/Rehearsal: Regularly revisiting information enhances memory.

  • Distinctiveness Effect: Unique or emotional information enhances recall, while standard information may fade.

  • Semantic Organization: Grouping by meaning aids memory.

  • False Memory Effect: Misremembering events or information that wasn't presented, highlighting the malleability of memory.