Case Study 1: Japanese Expansion in East Asia (1931–1941)

1. Causes of Expansion

Background

• Japan was largely isolated up until the mid-19th century.

• Political power was led by the Emperor but was exerted by the aristocracy of daimyo (feudal lords) and a caste of samurai (feudal warriors).

• By the 19th century Japan was not industrialized, thus was vulnerable to be conquered and exploited by more powerful Western powers.

  • This had been the case for China which gave economic concessions.

• 1853: Commodore Perry arrived with US warships demanding Japan to open for trade. This led to the signing of the Treaty of Kanagawa (1854)

  • The treaty was not well received as it appeared to surrender to Western intervention. 

  • Moreover, this led to the decline of power of shoguns, who had been de-facto rulers and the restoration of Imperial power.

• Meiji Restoration (1868)

  • Power restored to emperor Meiji, who oversaw rapid modernisation of the country.

  • Abolishment of the shogun office, also leading to the dismantling of the feudal system.

  • Reforms in military, education and industry.

1.1: The impact of Japanese nationalism and militarism on foreign policy

• Japanese foreign policy

  • Desire for equality with the west - to be perceived as equal and have same treatment internationally

  • Belief in a destiny as the leader of Asia - Japan destined to shape the future of Asia, 

  • Popular enthusiasm for militarisation and expansionism - general excitement for new government measures. Expansionism was supported by the ruling elite given Japan’s rapidly increasing population.

  • Need for raw materials and markets - limited raw materials in Japan hindered economic development, thus materials needed to be gained through economic concessions or imperial expansion.

  • Need for strategic security - weak border security due to geographical position.

• Impact of nationalism

  • “Oitsuke, oikose” (“catch up, overtake’) – popular slogan which summarizes expansionist ambitions and its ubiquity in policies and society.

  • Meiji Restoration (1867 – 1912)

    • The rapid modernisation was characterized by heavy investment in the military as well as an attempt to ‘Westernize’ socially.

    • The Meiji Constitution (1889)

      • The first legal document in the country drafted by the Privy Council, a small elite body which approved laws.

        • Modeled after the Prussian constitution.

      • The constitution established the Emperor of Japan as head of state and a divine individual.

        • Shintoism, the state religion, backed the Emperor’s divine right.

      • Creation of a parliament (known as the Diet), which was divided in the House of Representatives, which was elected, and the House of Peers, which was appointed.

      • Granted tremendous power to the military - held two cabinet positions and reported directly to the Emperor.

    • Education and loyalty to the state

      • Compulsory four years education, later raised to six years in 1903.

      • Schooling aimed to teach practical and problem-solving skills. It also helped to increase the literacy rate.

      • The Ministry of Education eventually embedded nationalistic values into reading materials;

        • 1890: Issue of the Imperial Rescript on Education which encouraged obedience to the state.

        • Texts included Confucian and Shinto values as well as those emphasizing loyalty to the state, family and community.

        • Teaching of military drills

      • The content within textbooks gave way to the development of a radical nationalism.

  • The Tripartite Intervention (1895)

    • Alarmed by Japan’s growing influence in China, Russia, France and Germany pressured Japan to renounce territories granted in the Treaty of Shimonoseki.

  • Yamagata- Lobanov Protocol (1896): Japan was forced to give up the Liaodong peninsula and agreed to control Korea along with Russia.

    • This incident fuelled nationalist sentiment since it demonstrated Japan was still regarded as inferior despite its military prowess.

• Impact of militarism

  • “Rich country, strong military” – popular slogan which synthesizes the scope of militarism within policies and society.

  • First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895)

    • Japan wanted to have a share in the scramble for China - desire to be an equal with Western powers who leased territories and in need of resources.

      • In 1876, it had already forced Korea to grant trade privileges.

    • Japan easily defeated China, demonstrating superiority in land and naval forces and moreover, the military and industrial progress made since the 1860s.

    • Treaty of Shimonoseki (April 1895): Japan gained Formosa (Taiwan) and the Liaodong Peninsula.

  • The Anglo-Japanese Alliance (1902)

    • The first treaty signed between a Western and a non-Western country.

    • Britain was motivated to make an alliance after Japan’s recent swift victory over China.

    • Both countries agreed to help each other if one was at war or remained neutral while they fought a war with another country.

    • The alliance signaled its growing status within the international community as well as its diplomatic isolation.

• Other factors

  • World War I

    • Japan began expanding its influence in Asia - it took over German colonies by seizing bases on Shandong Peninsula, north of China and occupying South Pacific possessions.

    • Twenty-One Demands issued to China - demanding to hand over the remainder of the Shandong Peninsula, preventing China from leasing coastal territories to foreign powers and requesting more commercial privileges in Manchuria.

      • Ultimately, Japan secured German Pacific islands and Germany’s economic privileges in Shandong at the Versailles conference.

    • Furthermore, Japan supplied goods to the Allies and Asian markets. This made them more self-sufficient and developed industries.

1.2: Japanese domestic issues

• 1920s: Change of foreign policy to internationalism, aiming to develop Japan’s economy through peaceful means and cooperation with the West.

• Domestically, Japan faced issues which threatened peace

  • Political issues

    • Fragile democracy - growing lack of freedom of expression and political activity, exhibited through the passing of the Peace Preservation Law. Likewise, political parties were not backed by the population due to numerous election law violations and financial scandals.

    • Opposition to internationalism - conservative groups opposed the policy given the treaties were seen as preventing Japan from expanding and fulfilling its destiny as leader of Asia.

  • Economic issues

    • Economic boom from the war years stopped in 1921 after European countries began to retake markets. 

    • Additionally, there was a strong divide between rural and urban areas and industries, especially between small business and conglomerates (zaibatsu).

      • Agricultural produce prices fell between 1926 and 1931.

      • Divide fuelled nationalism - people from rural areas tended to be more conservative and also enlist in the army, helping fulfill expansionist goals.

    • 1927: Severe financial crisis where 25% of banks collapsed.

    • The Great Depression (1929) - accelerated economic collapse, especially given the Japanese economy relied on world trade and exports.

• 1930s: Japanese foreign policy became increasingly more expansionist, given;

  • Political issues

    • Rise of authoritarianism - growing influence of military-dominated politics and non-party based parties which represented political and business oligarchs interest.

    • Growth of militarism - motivated by the sudden collapse of the economy, many nationalist within the armed forces saw Manchuria as an answer due to the region's rich mineral sources.

      • The invasion of Manchuria was feasible since Japan controlled Korea and the Liaodong Peninsula, both bordering Manchuria.

  • Economic issues

    • Impact of the Great Depression - prompted a shift in foreign policy and ignited the creation of authoritarian style politics

      • Unemployment reached 2.6 million in 1930.

      • 1929 - 1931: exports fell by 50%

      • 1932: price of silk, a product in which half of farmers relied, fell by 20%.

• Impact on foreign relations

  • 1920s: Cooperation and internationalism

    • Washington Naval Treaty (1922)

      • A series of treaties which limited Japan's naval power.

    • Active and influential member of the League of Nations and permanent member of the Council.

  • 1930s: growing expansionist ambitions

    • The Great Depression (1929) shifted perception of Western world and government - Japanese mistrusted their own Western-style government which failed to protect from the crisis. 

      • Moreover, there was a lack of willingness to cooperate in the international sphere, citing Western individualism as a cause for economic problems.

1.3: Political instability in China

• Background

  • China was in a weak position in the 19th century - military defeats which enabled foreign exploitation and domination, undermining the ruling Qing dynasty.

    • China became a semi-colonial state after the defeat at the Opium Wars (1839–42, 1856–60)

  • 1911: Establishment of a republic, although the central government did not rule the whole since regional warlords run different areas of the country.

    • This period of a warlord ruling class is known as Warlord Era (1916–27)

  • 1926–1927: The Guomindang Nationalist Party (GMD) launched the Northern Expedition, led by Chiang Kai-shek, in an attempt to defeat warlords and establish an efficient national government.

    • 1927: Establishment of a new Nationalist government in Nanjing.

• Role in encouraging Japanese nationalism

  • Desire to transform to a ‘first-class country’ and achieve an international reputation akin to Western powers by acquiring colonies.

  • Economic gain - access to raw materials and markets of East Asia.

  • Fear of losing political influence - as European influence in China grew, Japan was concerned Western powers had ambitions in Korea.

    • Japan believed its security relied on controlling both Korea and China.

• Political situations which benefited Japan

  • Warlords fought amongst them and prevented the creation of national unity, creating a divided country which was unlikely to rebel or counterattack.

  • Rivalry between the Guomindang Nationalist Party (GMD), the ruling party since 1927 and the Communist Party of China (CCP), established in 1921.

  • Although Zhang Xueliang, the warlord running Manchuria, threatened to eliminate foreign influence, it was unlikely to happen;

    • 1929: The Soviet army attacks after Zhang seizes its assets on Manchuria. The Red Army easily defeated and forced Zhang’s troops to retreat.

    • Moreover, neither Chiang Kai-shek nor the international community intervened.

2. Events

2.1: Japanese invasion of Manchuria and northern China (1931)

• Reasons

  • Political instability in China - suggested there would not be a military response.

  • Japan was already in control of Port Arthur, Manchuria after the Russo-Japanese War (1904 - 1905) victory.

    • Fear that Chiang Kai-shek and/or Zhang Xueliang would drive Japanese assets and concessions out if they did not take action.

  • Long standing interest in Manchuria due to mineral-rich land and access to raw material. However, it was more vital than ever given economic collapse and the opportunity to provide living space for an overpopulated Japan.

• Events

  • The Mukden Incident (September 1931)

    • September 1931: The Kwantung Army (name for the Japanese army that occupied Manchuria) staged the blowing up of a part of the South Manchurian Railway and blamed the incident on the Chinese.

    • Lieutenant-Colonel Ishiwara Kanji, with support from other military seniors, led the region takeover, despite the government’s opposition.

      • Prime Minister Wakatsuki Reijiro resigns after he fails to control the army. His successor, Inukai Tsuyoshi, was assassinated in 1932 when he tried to control the army in Manchuria.

    • November 1931: The Kwantung Army takes most of Manchuria. Chiang Kai-shek’s troops retreat south.

  • The Shanghai Incident (January 1932)

    • January 1932: A series of fights breaks out between Chinese troops and Japanese marines, who were protecting their citizens and assets.

      • Japanese forces briefly launched aerial bombings to Shanghai.

    • May 1932: Japanese withdraws and agrees to a truce with Chinese authorities.

  • May 1933: Treaty of Tanggu: The Chinese Nationalist government formally accepts Japanese control of Manchuria.

• Outcomes

  • Establishment of Manchukuo (February 1932)

    • Proclamation of a new independent state.

    • Pu Yi, the last Chinese Emperor (who abdicated in 1912), was crowned as a puppet leader.

  • Heavy taxation in Japan to maintain the army as well as protect it against the US or Soviet troops.

  • Growing power of the military - which undermined the government who opposed the invasion. Public support for military actions in Manchuria prompted the government to celebrate the invasion rather than accept their lack of leadership.

  • Diplomatic relationships between the US and Britain deteriorated. Both countries condemnations prompted Japan’s withdraw from the League of Nations

    • Reverted Japan’s foreign policy to isolationism.

  • Shifting alliances - Japan viewed Germany as a potential ally given they had also abandoned the League and the USSR as a potential enemy due to ideological differences and the threat to their interest in Manchuria.

    • Anti-Comintern Pact (November 1936): Signed between Japan and Germany. 

  • Chinese citizens boycott Japanese products, reducing sales by two-thirds.

  • The Chinese government’s lack of action enabled Japanese expansion.

    • This strategy of ceding territory was done because the government was already fighting the Communist and wanted to prevent the outbreak of a new war or ‘buy time’ in case this happened.

2.2: Sino-Japanese War (1937—1941)

• Reasons

  • Domestic issues (growing power of military)

    • The military gained more power and public support after the invasion of Manchuria. This in turn, threatened government control.

    • Series of assassinations to politicians and ministers who attempt to subdue military power such as

      • 15 May Incident (1932): assassination of Prime Minister Inukai.

      • February 26 Incident (1936): attempted military coup which was stopped by troops who were loyal to the government.

    • Growth of ultra-nationalism - as a result of the Cardinal Principles of the Nation, published in March 1937 by the Ministry of Education which stated the Emperor was divine and praised ideas of sacrifice for the nation.

  • Japanese expansionism

    • Tanggu Truce (May 1933): Chiang Kai-shek signs a treaty after successful Japanese Jehol offensive. The truce highlighted China’s military inferiority and lack of resources for a new conflict, as the government was fighting communists. 

    • The Takeover of Inner Mongolia (1937) - the weak response motivated further expansion.

    • The Amau Declaration (April 1934) - the Japanese government announced its intention to rule China as a protectorate. In December, it announced its intention to increase its naval capacity once the Washington Naval Treaty expired in 1936.

      • This demonstrated Japan’s intention to fulfill its role as the guardian of Asia by abandoning international cooperation and diplomacy. 

• Events

  • Marco Polo Bridge Incident (July 1937): Chinese and Japanese forces exchange fire outside of Beijing. This event is considered the formal outbreak of war.

  • The Nanjing Massacre (December 1937): Mass civilian killed by Japanese forces. The Nationalists retreated beyond the Sichuan mountains and opened the dikes of the Yellow River in an attempt to slow Japanese forces.

  • October 1938: Wuhan, the new Nationalist capital, fell. Japanese forces occupied a vast area of northern and eastern China.

  • September 1939: GMD forces stop Japanese forces who attempted to cross the Yangtze river.

  • March 1940: Japanese forces attempt to stop Chinese resistance by setting up a puppet state governed by Wang Jingwei and launching the ‘Three-All Campaign’ terror campaign.

• Outcomes

  • Japanese troops destined to fight US and Britain

  • Operation Ichigo (April - December 1944): offensive against Chinese Nationalist and US bomber bases. The GMD suffered high casualties (500,000) and economic loss, with 25% of their factories destroyed.

  • 1945: Japanese forces withdrew from southern China to concentrate defense efforts in Manchuria after Soviet troops occupied the region in August 1945.

2.3: The Three Power/Tripartite Pact; the outbreak of war; Pearl Harbor (1941)

• The Three Power/Tripartite Pact (September 1940)

  • Reasons

    • 1938 - 1939: Defeat at the Manchurian/Mongolian border: heavy losses at the hand of Soviet forces discouraged Japan from attacking the USSR, thus, shifted their interests into the South.

    • 1940: New Order in East Asia: Prince Konoe announced intention to create a new order. Closer ties with Axis powers, non-aggression to the USSR and attention to US-European Pacific possessions would make this possible.

  • Events

    • September 1940: Italy, Germany and Japan agree to politically, economically and militarily assist each other if one is attacked by another country. 

      • It also recognises each other's spheres of influence, meaning Germany renounced its claims of its former Pacific possessions, now governed by Japan.

  • Outcomes

    • Strained relationship between Japan and Germany - given the end of the Nazi-Soviet Pact (1939).

    • Japan announced the creation of the Great East Asian Co-Prosperity Sphere, which would provide economic support amongst countries in East Asia.

    • 1941: Japan expands to Southern Asia - motivated by Nazi-intercepted British documents which stated lack of preparedness to defend Southern possessions. 

• Pearl Harbor (December 1941)

  • Reasons

    • July 1941: US imposes an oil embargo

    • Japan decided to eliminate the American Pacific fleet in order to buy time and allow a takeover of Pacific possessions.

    • Likewise, they hoped this would prevent a large-scale conflict and that the US would choose to negotiate.

      • Japanese officials calculated that American rearmament would make their naval strength equal 30% of the US’s by 1944.

3. Responses

3.1: League of Nations and the Lytton Report

• The League of Nations’ response was slow and delayed given;

  • China’s instability - Chinese government control on Manchuria was limited after the 1911 Revolution.

  • Japanese presence in the area since 1905

  • European powers unsympathetic of Chiang Kai-shek, who wanted to end foreign concession in China

  • Lack of international cooperation - most countries were preoccupied with domestic economic issues.

• Moreover, economic sanctions would not be effective because;

  • There was no US support.

  • It will prompt a response from Japan, who would most likely seize British and French colonies in Asia.

• The League ended up issuing a Council resolution calling Japan to withdraw its forces from the area of the South Manchuria Railway.

• October 1931: Japan vetoes the resolution through Article 11, which China used to appeal to the League and allowed Council members to veto Council resolutions in which they were involved. 

• December 1931: The League sets up the Lytton Commission to investigate the incident. The commission spent April - June 1932 in Manchuria.

• October 1932: Lytton Report published

  • Document concluded that Manchuria should remain an independent state under Chinese sovereignty.

  • It also commanded Japan to withdraw forces and concluded that Sino-Japanese relations improvement would solve the invasion.

• The report was ineffective given;

  • The commission took almost a year to produce the report. By this time, the situations had shifted

  • The commission did not take in consideration Japan’s unwillingness to compromise

    • Outcomes 

      • 1933: Japan withdraws from the League of Nations after the League decides to uphold the Lytton Report.

      • The lack of strong actions against invasion motivated Mussolini’s future invasion of Abyssinia (1935).

3.2: Political developments within China—the Second United Front

• August 1937: Chiang Kai-shek sets up the Second United Front, halting the civil war with the communists and providing harsher actions against the Japanese offensive.

  • The alliance demanded the CCP to end their land redistribution campaign and agree to be commanded by Chiang Kai-shek. In return, the GMD pledged to cease attacks on CCP and agreed to allow multiple political parties. 

• Failure of the Second United Front

  • The union lasted until 1945 and proved to be ineffective due to;

    • Lack of cooperation in resistance tactics

    • The GMD broke agreements - it did not set up a multi-party democratic system and blockaded Communist Base Area to prevent the spread of the ideology.

    • January 1941: GMD attacked the Communist New Fourth Army resulting in 10,000 casualties.

• GMD’s Response: Marco Polo Bridge Incident

  • Chiang Kai-shek sent troops to help warlords in the area in hopes of encouraging foreign powers (such as the US or USSR) to enter the conflict.

  • However, his response proved to be disastrous - the Japanese responded by sending 15 military divisions to their forces in China and swiftly conquered different areas.

• Communist Party (CCP) Response: Japanese actions

  • CCP forces controlled the north of China, given the lack of GMD forces and the fact Japan started attacking from the south.

  • Engaging in guerrilla war, to prevent a large-scale conflict with a superior invader.

  • Hundred Regiments Offensive (1940): the only large-scale offensive against the Japanese, which failed and provoked brutal reprisals.

  • The use of the guerrilla tactics, despite heavy losses (100,000 casualties between 1941-43), helped build a heroic reputation and spread Communism, especially in the countryside.

3.3: International response

• US initiatives

  • 1937: US Secretary of State Stimson, proposes economic sanctions following Japan’s invasion of China.

  • 1938: The US halts its policy of isolationism after a series of Japanese announcements warning of a ‘new order’ in Asia. This alarmed the American government who had economic interests in the region.

• Increasing tensions between the US and Japan

  • July 1940: Congress passes the Two-Ocean Naval Expansion Act, encouraging naval construction and rearmament, demonstrating its intention to intervene militarily.

  • September 1940: President Roosevelt embargoed metal and aviation fuel exports to Japan, highlighting its intention to take tougher action.

  • January 1941: US-Japan relations deteriorated following American economic sanctions, banning trade of raw materials and metal.

    • Japan attempted to achieve self-sufficiency and be less dependent on exports through the failed Miyazaki Plan (August 1936).

  • July 1941: The US embargoes all fuel exports to Japan after the Japanese invasion to southern Indo-China.

    • Japan was severely affected as it only had a two-year oil supply.

Case Study 2: German and Italian Expansion (1933 - 1940)

1. Causes of Expansion

Italian Expansion

Background

• Italy was not a unified country until 1861 - the country was divided into kingdoms which had changed leadership.

• Liberal Italy (1870-1923), the previous government, faced a number of long-term weaknesses

  • Economic problems

    • Economic inequality - southern states were poorer since they relied on agriculture, while northern states were industrialized.

    • Politics were dominated by richer northern states - for instance, laws and political systems from Piedmont were imposed on other states.

    • General strike (1914) halts production. 

  • Political problems

    • Intervention in WWI made Italy a politically divided country - 5 million war veterans resented the Liberal government’s treatment and were also politicized, demanding anti-war policies

    • Until 1930 only elite men over 30 could vote.

    • Influential movements such as the Nationalists (est. 1910) and the Futurists (est. 1910) believed unification was incomplete since regions of Trentino and Trieste were under Austrian control. 

      • Likewise Italy’s destiny was to be a great power which boasted an empire comparable to the British or French.

      • The Futurists criticized the Liberal government’s inefficient policies which failed to transform Italy into a ‘great power’.

  • Social problems

    • Regionalism - lack of national identity and loyalty to hometowns or home states.

    • Religious division - the Vatican had urged Catholics to abstain from voting until 1914.

    • Growing peasant and working-class unrest - given politics were dominated by elites which had policies which only served their needs and those of the upper and middle class.

      • Unrest led to General strike in 1914.

Impact of fascism on the foreign policies of Italy

• Mussolini’s foreign policies

  • Mussolini assumed power without a clear outline of foreign policies, as opposed to Hitler, who outlined his in Mein Kampf.

  • Some of Mussolini’s early foreign policies were similar to those of the Liberal government such as those relating to expanding Italy’s influence in the Balkans, Near East and East Africa.

  • In the early 1920s, the Italian government was concerned and devoted military resources to suppressing uprising in Libya. 

  • By 1925, Italian foreign policy was clearly outlined and presented the following goals:

    • Increase national pride

    • Consolidate domestic support for the regime

    • Revise the post-war settlement of 1919-20

    • Dominate the Balkans

    • Dominate the Mediterranean

    • Gaining ‘spazio vitale’ (living space) by building an empire 

    • Spreading fascist ideology to other countries.

• Influence of fascist ideology

  • During the 1920s, Mussolini exhibited a preference for aggression and confrontation

    • Corfu Crisis (1923) - Military occupation after Greek bandits allegedly murdered an Italian general.

    • Undermined French influence in the Mediterranean - Mussolini supported opposition movements in Morocco and Tunisia, French colonies as well as fund Croatian separatists who sought independence from Yugoslavia, a French ally which had incorporated Italian territory after WWI. 

    • Albania (1926) - turned the country to a client state by helping Ahmet Zog (future King Zog of Albania in 1928) seize power.

• Other factors influencing Italian foreign policy

  • Disagreement with Versailles treaty (post-war settlement) - Mussolini aimed to increase national pride and make Italy a stronger contender in international politics

  • Need for domestic support - Mussolini needed to consolidate his image as well as attend economic needs, through expansion and establishment of an empire which meant resources and living space for Italians. 

  • Changing international situation -  Britain and France distracted by internal affairs as well as German and Japanese expansion. This allowed an opportunity for unsupervised Italian expansion.

Impact of domestic economic issues on the foreign policies of Italy

• Most of Italy’s policies aimed to make the country self-sufficient (otherwise known as ‘autarky’). 

  • Mussolini envisioned Italy as an ‘corporate state’, a system which would mix capitalist and socialist practices.

    • The system would regulate the economy, be based on a system of corporations and serve national interest in order to cease political problems.

  • To achieve this, Mussolini launched initiatives such as;

• The Battle for Grain (1925)

  • Increase crop (namely grain) production and decrease dependency on imports.

  • This was achieved to some extent - grain production increased and imports fell by 75%, however, it was achieved at the cost of forcing wheat crops in non-suitable areas, such as the south which sacrificed olive production.

• The Battle for the Lira (1926)

  • An economic policy which sought to increase the value of Italian currency and fight inflation.

  • The regime adjusted the value of the lira from 154 to 90 lira in relation to the British pound.

    • As a result exports fell and those acquiring imported goods had to pay high tariffs. Likewise, workers had to endure a wage cut by 10% in 1927.

    • However, it benefitted industries which relied on imports such as the heavy (e.g. steel and chemicals) industries. This advantage was key in rearming Italy.

• Impact of Great Depression

  • Unemployment rose to 2 million in 1933 and workers had to face payment cuts in 1930 and 1934.

  • Italy invaded Abyssinia (modern-day Ethiopia) in 1935-1936 promising living space and as an attempt to revive domestic support.

    • Subsequently this led to Italy’s withdraw from the League of Nations

    • Furthermore, it severed diplomatic ties with Britain and France and aligned closer to Nazi Germany by joining the Anti-Comintern Pact (1937) and signing the Pact of Steel (1939), a military alliance between both countries.

Changing diplomatic alignments in Europe

• By 1934 Italy’s domestic actions were significant for international politics. For instance, Mussolini’s support for Austrian independence opposed Hitler’s Anschluss.

• German rearmament in 1935 preoccupied Western powers, who viewed Italy as a partner in ‘guaranteeing status quo’ in Europe.

• Fear of German expansion and rearmament led Italy to align with Great Powers like Britain and France in the first half of the 1930s through the establishment of

  • The Stresa Front (1935)

    • An agreement signed by Britain, France and Italy, which aimed to prevent countries from breaking the Versailles treaty and called for joint action of the signatories if this happened.

    • However, the agreement was weak - lacked outlines to achieve goals and failed to mention particular countries (e.g. Germany)

    • Moreover, all signatories had opposing views on how to deal with German expansion. 

      • England, for instance, did not adopt a clear stance and avoided confrontation, leading to the signing of the Anglo-German Naval Agreement in June 1935.

    • Furthermore, Italy’s invasion of Abyssinia (1935-36) ended severing diplomatic relations with Britain and France.

• This set of fallouts and new alignments enabled Italy to move closer to Nazi Germany and facilitated Mussolini expansionist policies.

  • Rome-Berlin Axis (1936)

    • A friendship agreement between Mussolini and Hitler.

German Expansion

Background

• Germany severely affected after World War I

• The Weimar Republic (1919 - 1933) experienced a short-lived period of economic boom known as the ‘Golden Years (1924 - 1929) and was a relatively politically stable country. However, by the 1930s, it faced various weaknesses;

  • Economic problems

    • Hyperinflation (1923) - led many Germans to believe the government had no control of the economy as well as created distrust.

    • High dependence on US loans - suggested a lack of plan to rebuild the economy. Likewise, American loans were paid with money destined to pay reparation expenses and debts.

      • Unemployment reached 6 million by the 1930s.

    • Disruption of industries - Germany was forced to hand over territories with high raw materials in the Treaty of Versailles, which could have been extracted to both recover the economy and pay reparations.

  • Political problems

    • Lack of consensus - disproportional representation of political parties in the Reichstag.

    • Creation of radical groups (right-wing, communist, nationalist) as a response to perceived government failures

    • Political instability - due to the constant changes of political parties and chancellors.

      • Furthermore, Article 48, which allowed the President to issue emergency measures without the consent of the Reichstag, was widely used.

  • Social problems

    • Anxiety and hopelessness - most people suffered aftermaths of war as well as economic hardships

    • Sense of humiliation after Versailles

Impact of Nazism on the foreign policies of Germany

• Hitler’s foreign policies 

  • Unlike Mussolini, when Hitler came to power, he had a clear set of policies first exhibited in Mein Kampf.

  • Most of Hitler’s policies were based on the idea of a superior race and to a lesser extent, avenging the clauses on the Treaty of Versailles. Some of the most important policies were;

    • A “Gross Deutschland” - the idea of unifying with Austrian-Germans and German minorities such as those in Czechoslovakia and Poland.

    • Race and living space (‘Lebensraum’) - supported the creation of a Greater Germany inhabited purely by superior Aryans which needed to expand Eastwards as far as the Ural mountains. In order to achieve this, expel ‘inferior’ races such as Russians, Poles and Jews.

    • Natural enemies and allies - Hitler considered Russia an enemy nation given its high Jewish population and communist government and France, due their role in drafting the Treaty of Versailles. 

      • Alternatively, Britain was considered a potential ally because of their empire, opposition to French occupation of the Ruhr (1923) and their ‘racial similarity’

• Influence of fascist ideology

  • Hitler’s foreign policies exhibited clear links to fascist ideas such as;

    • Social Unity: the promotion of a collective national society, which was to be achieved with the unification of German-majority territories (A ‘Gross Deutschland’) 

    • Social Darwinism: fascist ideology accepts hierarchy and argues that some races have evolved to be the fittest, therefore supports the view some races are inferior.

    • Nationalism: exhibited in two of his policies

      • Gross Deutschland: foster nationalism by joining with populations with similar culture and history.

      • Natural enemies: promoting an identity through division and isolation. Minorities were perceived as ‘foreign’ therefore needed to be expelled and promote hatred to other nations.

  • Moreover, to achieve all policies German had to flatly breach the Treaty of Versailles, especially the clauses that barred reunification and rearmament.

• Other factors influencing German foreign policy

  • Treaty of Versailles 

    • The restrictive conditions fuelled a strong nationalist movement. Some of these included

      • Germany was not allowed to join the newly formed League of Nations.

      • Loss of territories - Lands in eastern Germany which were rich farlands given to Poland, colonies given to France and Britain.

      • Restriction in militarisation - Germany not allowed to have an air force, army limited to 100,000 men and navy restricted to 6 battleships

    • Dolchstoss (“Stab in the back” myth) - nationalist view that the Weimar republic was at fault for the humiliation at Versailles. Furthermore, they argued the German army could continue to fight instead of agreeing to sign the armistice in 1918.

    • In the 1920s, German politicians were committed to reverse some clauses imposed on the country.

      • Gustav Stresemann, foreign minister, successfully negotiated Germany’s entry to the League of Nations and achieved Allied withdrawal from the Rhineland.

        • This demonstrated how although these aims had been prevalent, Germany could achieve this through diplomacy and negotiation rather than resorting to force.

  • Mitteleuropa - the idea of unifying ethnic-German populations in a Central European state was not new and was present since Prussian times.

Impact of domestic economic issues on the foreign policies of Germany

• Impact of the Great Depression

  • Crisis key to Weimar Republic collapse - the country’s economy heavily relied on US loans and the economic recovery was fragile.

  • Influenced growth of Nazi power - the crisis was key in the collapse of the republic and the rise of Hitler. 

    • In 1932, unemployment was at 6 million and the Nazi party achieved 37% of seats in the Reichstag.

    • In 1933, due to the party’s popularity, President Hindenburg appointed Hitler chancellor.

  • Economic recovery in the 1930s made Germany Europe’s most ‘powerful industrial and military power’ and accelerated German rearmament as well as enabling aggressive and expansionist foreign policies

Changing diplomatic alignments in Europe

• The end of collective security

  • Collective security is a term used to describe the relatively peaceful atmosphere, where no countries threaten to invade others as well as recognising that if one country was attacked, others needed to respond.

  • Germany was not seen as a threat - it sought amendments through diplomatic route and accepted the eastern borders through the Locarno Pact (1925) 

  • The Wall Street Crash (1929) had a global impact - all countries wanted to protect industries from foreign competition, therefore fostering isolation and lack of cooperation in the international community.

    • These conditions facilitated potential expansion and helped boost popularity of extremist parties such as the Nazi party.

  • Hitler came to power in 1933 with intentions to reverse the Treaty of Versailles by force.

    • Non-Aggression Pact (1934)

      • Signed with Poland and effective for 10 years.

      • The pact was used as an ‘act of statesmanship’ to international community, in an attempt to convince Germany was still a diplomatic nation

      • In reality, bilateral agreements were easier to break, thus preferred by Hitller.

      • Pact undermined France's security - the country counted on Poland to fight a potential German invasion (as stated in a 1921 alliance) and Germany had overlooked legal barriers imposed by France.

      • Furthermore, the pact prevented a reconciliation and alliance between Poland and Czechoslovakia.

• Appeasement

  • British foreign policy concerned with making concessions to Hitler in hopes to maintain peace in Europe.

  • Some factors that shaped the policy and undermined collective security include;

    • Revision of Versailles restrictions 

      • Britain believed some of the clauses were too harsh and believed negotiating a limited set of amendments could guarantee European peace. 

      • Moreover, this policy was still enforced when Hitler occupied German-speaking areas of Czechoslovakia in March 1939.

    • Reluctance to confront Germany  

      • Britain as well as other European powers (like France) did not want to take military action without the support from the US, which was following an isolationist policy since the 1920s.

    • Concern with domestic issues and colonies

      • The Great Depression caused economic issues and delayed British rearmament until 1934.

      • The crisis made foreign policies more aggressive. Britain was particularly concerned with Japan taking over its possessions in East Asia.

      • Unrest in different parts of the empire (India, Mandate of Palestine) made Britain focus its attention on quelling uprisings rather than being dragged to European conflict.

2. Events

Italian Expansion

Abyssinia (1935—1936)

• Reasons

  • Avenge humiliating defeat at the Battle of Adwa (1896)

  • Establish an East Africa empire by linking Abyssinia with Eritrea and Somaliland, Italian colonies.

  • Distract Italians from domestic economic issues such as the impact of the Great Depression and the failure of the ‘corporate state’

  • Mussolini believed neither Britain nor France would take action.

• Events

  • Wal Wal Incident (1934): Italian troops in Somalia crossed the border to the town of Wal Wal. Abyssinia complained to the League of Nations although the organism did not view the incident as an attempt to invade, as it argued the area was contested.

  • October 1935: Mussolini launches a full-scale invasion from Eritrea. Emperor Haile Selassie of Abyssinia appealed four times to the League with no response.

  • April 1936: Abyssinian army is defeated and Italian troops reach the capital on 5 May. The Emperor flees to England

  • May 1936: Abyssinia is formally annexed by Italy and formed part of the Italian East Africa

• Outcomes

  • League of Nations authority further weakened - the league’s authority was undermined after the inaction following the Manchurian incident.

    • Although it imposed economic sanctions in 1935, the arbitration committee took one year to reach an unclear conclusion on the nature of the Wal Wal incident.

  • The success of the invasion fuelled nationalist sentiment

  • Britain and France alliance to Italy undermined - although both governments attempted to draft a secret pact where they divided Abyssinia, since both countries had possessions in Africa and still wanted to have Italy on their side to halt Hitler.

    • However, the pact was leaked to the press and both countries were pressured to condemn Italian actions.

  • The war was expensive for Italy, raising its cost to 40 million lire. Furthermore, guerrillas substituted troops, which the Italian army had to fight until 1939.

  • Little commercial value - by 1939 only 2% of Italy’s trade was with Abyssinia.

Invasion of Albania (April 1939)

• Reasons

  • Albania’s strategic position - the country was located in the entrance of the Adriatic sea which fulfilled Italian ambitions of dominating the area.

    • Additionally, it gave access to freely invade Dalmatia, an area with Italian claims which was now part of Yugoslavia.

  • Invasion of Czechoslovakia (March 1939) - Germany breached the Treaty of Versailles. Mussolini was not consulted and was now determined to emulate Hitler’s success.

  • The invasion is considered a ‘stunt’ given Albania had been a client state since 1927 when it became an Italian protectorate.

• Events

  • March 1939: Mussolini sent an ultimatum to King Zog after Albania signed trade agreements with Greece and Yugoslavia in 1934

  • The Italian government showed intimidation -  first by sending warships and later in April 1939 flying over planes and dropping leaflets encouraging Albanians to surrender.

  • 7 April 1939: General Alfredo Guzzoni swiftly defeated badly equipped Albanian troops. The following day, troops reached and seized control of Tirana.

  • 12 April 1939: Albanian government deposed King Zog and voted to unite with Italy in a ‘personal union’

• Outcomes

  • Establishment of an Albanian fascist government under Shefqet Verlaci.

    • The Albanian foreign office merged with the Italian one. Mussolini proclaimed the creation of the Italian Empire.

  • Albania withdrew from the League of Nations in April 1939.

  • Italy would use the country as a base to launch its invasion of Greece in 1940.

Entry into the Second World War (10 June 1940)

• Reasons

  • Possibility of territorial gain - Mussolini declared war on France, two weeks before it surrendered, hoping to absorb its colonies. 

    • Moreover, he was hoping to gain territory in the Balkans with a weakened Yugoslavia and Greece as well as battle British control in Egypt.

  • Mussolini did not want to have a ‘non-belligerency’ stance, which was reminiscent of Italy’s stance at the beginning of World War I.

    • This neutral stance was seen as that adopted by lesser powerful countries.

  • Mussolini wanted to avoid potential hostility from Hitler in case Germany won the war.

  • By the 1940s, Italy’s motivation was predominantly economic.

    • Italy depended economically on Germany - the country supplied ⅔ of Italy’s coal. 

• Events

  • March 1940: Britain blockades all German coal ports

  • June 1940: Italy declares war on Britain and France

  • Italy launches a set of invasions from its colonies (1940 - 1941) - Italian forces invaded Egypt from Libya and Greece from Albania. 

• Outcomes

  • French colonies not granted - Hitler did not concede any territory since he wanted to preserve good relations with the Vichy government.

  • Poor performance - Italy confronted a weakened France in a campaign of sporadic air raids and irregular fights.

    • Italy and France signed an armistice on June 25, 1940 ending Italian ambitions to acquire new territories. 

  • Italian invasions quelled by an effective British response. 

    • Likewise, it enabled Hitler to invade Yugoslavia and Greece in April 1941.

  • Establishment of the Governorate of Dalmatia (1941-43) - territories given to Italy after German troops invade and divide Yugoslavia. The Governorate was formally recognized through the signing of the Treaties of Rome (1941)

  • The entry to war was unpopular - Italian foreign minister, King Victor Emmanuel and most of the Italian population opposed the entry to war.

German Expansion

German challenges to post-war settlements (1933—1938)

• Initially, Hitler was reluctant to defy post-war settlements given its weak armed forces (100,000 army) compared to neighboring countries (e.g France with a 600,000 army). However a set of events enabled Hitler to progressively achieve his goals.

• Stage 1: Breaking from international organizations (1933 - 1934)

  • 1933: Germany withdraws from the League of Nations and the Disarmament Conference

    • The German government aimed to achieve parity in troop numbers

    • 1932: In a Geneva conference, the government demanded parity with France (600,000 army) or be allowed to rearm to be equal with France.

    • Ramsay MacDonald, British Prime Minister, proposed a plan where France, Germany, Italy and Poland would achieve parity over the course of 5 years. In addition to European troops, France would be allowed to have military bases in their colonies.

    • When the French government refused, Hitler used this as an excuse to withdraw from the Disarmament Conference and also notified the country would leave the League of Nations.

      • Withdrawing gave Hitler the ability to rearm more freely, although this was already happening on a smaller (secret) scale during the Weimar Republic.

  • 1934: Non-Aggression Treaty (Germany-Poland)

    • Hitler signed a 10-year ‘friendship’ treaty with the Polish government, reassuring he will not attack although he was motivated to win back lost lands from Poland.

    • Bilateral agreements benefited Hitler as they were easier to break, and have a ‘purely temporary significance.’ Moreover, Hitler could possibly have intended to have Poland as a client state.

    • Furthermore, the treaty directly undermined collective security, especially France's security system. 

      • The French government allied with Poland and Czechoslovakia in order to contain Germany.

  • 1934: Austrian Nazi Putsch 

    • The Austrian Nazi party attempted a coup in order to achieve Anschluss (union with Germany) which was forbidden in both the Treaty of Versailles and the Treaty of St. Germain.

    • In their failed coup, Austrian Nazis murdered the Austrian chancellor, Engelbert Dollfuss, who was close to Mussolini. 

      • While Hitler openly supported the Austrian Nazis, it is unknown if he orchestrated the putsch.

• Stage 2: 1935-1936: By March 1935, Hitler openly challenged the restrictions in the Treaty of Versailles. The government used both legal means and external political situations to their advantage.

  • January 1935: Reunion with the Saar

    • The Saar, a mineral-rich and predominantly German region, has been administered by the League of Nations since the 1920s. 

    • 90% voted in favor of reunion with Germany in a plebiscite supervised by the League of Nations and stipulated in the Treaty of Versailles, therefore this action was done through the legal and diplomatic route.

      • This event strengthened the economy and boosted Hitler’s popularity domestically.

  • March 1935: Conscription and announcement of rearmament

    • Hitler announces the reintroduction of military conscription in order to create an army of 550,000 men and Germany’s intention to start building an air force, a breach of Versailles.

    • As a response, Britain, France and Italy formed the Stresa Front (April 1934), a short-lived co-operation which pledged to take action if another country breached Versailles.

  • June 1935: Anglo-German Naval Convention

    • Britain signed an agreement with Germany, allowing the German navy to be 35% of the total tonnage of the British navy.

      • This action was a clear breach of the Treaty of Versailles, as the conditions would exceed the limitations imposed in 1919. Likewise, it also weakened the Stresa Front.

  • March 1936: Re-militarising the Rhineland

    • German forces occupied the Rhineland, breaching both the Versailles Treaty and the Locarno Pact (1925), the latter where Germany outlined its borders.

    • The occupation was possible due to the political situation - the collapse of the Stresa Front, Naval convention and the recent invasion of Abyssinia.

      • The League of Nations responded by condemning the actions. While France and Britain were preoccupied, they did not take any action given their military was not prepared for confrontation.

• Stage 3: 1938: German invasion

  • March 1938: Anschluss

    • Hitler still aimed to unite with Austria although he recognized this was not immediately possible and needed to ‘gradually increase’ German influence.

    • 1936: Signing of the Austro-German agreement, which established Nazi influence in the country. 

      • On the surface, the agreement recognized both country’s sovereignty but concluded that Austrian foreign policy should match that of a ‘German state’. Furthermore, secret clauses gave prominent Nazis important roles in government.

    • February 1938: Kurt Schuschnigg, Austrian Chancellor, alarmed by Austrian Nazi activities meets with Hitler at Berchtesgaden in an attempt to prevent the takeover of Austria.

      • Hitler came to the meeting with a set of conditions which included appointing Artur Seyss-Inquart, the Austrian Nazi leader, as Interior Minister and align Austria’s economic and foreign policies with Germany. Likewise, it demanded the release of imprisoned Nazis. 

      • Schuschnigg was forced to accept after being tortured for two hours, knowing these conditions undermined the sovereignty of Austria.

    • Schuschnigg called for a plebiscite for 13 March 1938 in an attempt to break free from Hitler. Austrians were asked if they wanted a ‘free and German, independent and social, Christian and united country’

    • March 1938: Hitler marches into Austria fearing the result would not benefit him. The German army is invited to supervise the polling stations.

      • 99% of the population voted for Anschluss. 

    • Schuschnigg, asked help from Italy, Britain or France to no response. When Anschluss was proclaimed, neither Britain nor France took action since they did not want to resist Hitler while the result suggested most Austrians supported Anschluss.

  • September 1938: The Sudeten Crisis

    • Reasons: Dismemberment of Czechoslovakia

      • Hitler viewed Czechs as an inferior race

      • The country was created after the 1919-1920 Peace Settlements - 3 million Sudeten Germans were absorbed into a new state and had been denied self-determination.

      • An ally of both France and USSR with an efficient army - it was an obstacle to Hitler’s ambitions in the east.

    • Czechoslovakia was weak after the Anschluss - German troops near south and eastern borders

    • Hitler carefully built links with Konrad Henlein, the leader of the Sudeten German Party in an attempt to gain control of the country and its strong armament industry.

      • April 1938: Helein demands autonomy for the Sudeten Germans in a speech.

    • After false reports of German mobilisations, tensions between Czechs and Sudeten German increased, in part due to Nazi propaganda which alleged persecution to Sudeten Germans.

    • 12 September: Amid an imminent invasion to Czechoslovakia, given the lack of response from Czech allies, British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain intervenes.

      • A series of negotiations ensues. Hitler demanded to have territories where more than 50% of the population were German. Poland and Hungary made the same demands.

    • 29 - 30 September - Munich Conference: 

      • The four powers (Italy, Britain, France and Germany) meet and agree Germany should occupy the Sudetenland. 

      • Poland and Hungary were granted the Teschen and Ruthenia respectively.

        • The four powers agreed to guarantee the new Czech state 

      • Neither Czechoslovakia nor the USSR were consulted. The Czechs were forced to accept these terms because despite being promised protection, France, Britain and the USSR were not prepared to defend the country nor win a war against Germany.

    • The loss of the Sudetenland was disastrous for the Czechs - the area was a heavy industrial base, which held 70% of their iron and steel resources. Likewise, it weakened their security at their borders.

German expansion (1938—1939)

• Pact of Steel (1939)

  • Otherwise known as The Italo-German Alliance, was an agreement to support each other if one was involved in hostilities ‘contrary to its wishes and desires’

  • The pact was motivated by Italy’s recent actions - Italian invasion of Albania severed diplomatic relationships and motivated hostile actions from Britain and France.

• Nazi-Soviet Pact and the outbreak of war

  • The Nazi-Soviet Pact (23 August 1939)

    • A non-aggression pact in which each signatory agreed to remain neutral in the event either nation is attacked by a third party.

    • The pact came as a shock to the international community since it was signed by countries with dissimilar political systems. However, both had strong motivations;

      • Stalin was buying time in order to strengthen its armed forces. Moreover the pact had a secret clause where both countries agreed to divide Europe into spheres of influence as well as agreeing to divide Poland between them.

      • Hitler wanted to prevent a two-front conflict by seeking Soviet neutrality. This would ultimately help him achieve his plans for Lebensraum in the East.

        • By signing the pact, it prevented the Soviet from forming an alliance with Britain or France.

    • Disagreements in negotiations enabled Germans to propose the pact;

      • Initially, the Soviet Union favored an alliance with Britain and France, alarmed by Hitler’s growing power.

        • The Western powers were still suspicious of the communist government, thus never reached an agreement.

      • After the Munich Agreement (and despite not being invited), the USSR proposed a military alliance following Hitler’s invasion of Prague.

      • The Western powers could not reach a consensus, meanwhile Stalin notified Hitler that he was open to reach an agreement.

  • Hitler invades Poland (September 1939)

    • 1 September: Germany invades Poland after fabricating a border incident.

    • 3 September: Britain and France declare war on Germany while the German army swiftly advances. This was possible due to;

      • German military superiority - twice bigger than the Polish, 4 times the number of aircrafts.

      • Use of effective tactics such as Blitzkrieg

      • Weak Polish defense - such as grouping forces in long, thin lines to defend the Western border.

    • 28 September: the USSR and Germany sign a treaty dividing Poland.

    • Poland was incorporated as a colonial territory. Hitler hoped that Britain accepted the German conquest of Poland.

3. Responses

International response to German aggression (1933—1938)

• Britain, France and the USSR rearmed given the growing threat posed by Germany, Italy and Japan.

  • The USSR started to rearm in 1930 and accelerated from 1937 under Stalin’s Third Five-Year Plan, which outlined targets for rapid Soviet industrialisation.

  • Britain began rearmament in 1934, spending around 1,500 million pounds.

  • France rearmed in 1936.

    • As a response, Hitler accelerated his Four-Year Plan to make Germany ready for war by 1940.

• Remilitarisation of the Rhineland (1936)

  • Britain

    • Publicly condemned the action in a meeting of the League of Nations Council in London.

      • However, the League and Britain were concerned with the Abyssinian invasion that they failed to impose a meaningful sanction.

    • Privately, Britain did not condemn the action. Some viewed this as rightful since WWI had ended 18 years ago.

• Anschluss (1938)

  • Britain

    • Britain took no action mainly because it believed forbidding a union between Germany and Austria had been an error of the Treaty of Versailles.

      • Britain did protest the occupation publicly. 

  • France

    • Political instability in the 1930s - By the time Germany invaded Austria, France did not have a government. Therefore, even if they opposed the invasion, they could not take action.

      • Furthermore, political turmoil prevented France from standing up to Hitler’s expansion.

• Sudeten Crisis (1938)

  • Britain

    • Chamberlain, British Prime Minister, led the negotiations between Sudeten Germans and the Czech government as well as Germany and Czechoslovakia.

    • Britain aimed to resolve the crisis peacefully because;

      • Britain was not prepared for war

      • Willingness to revise the 1919 Versailles settlements to incorporate Czech territories.

    • March 1938: Chamberlain pressures the Czech government to accept conditions of the Sudeten Germans.

      • Pressure grew by May, after a war scare following Czech troop mobilisations. 

      • Chamberlain was also invested in excluding the USSR from negotiations, given his distrust of the communist government.

    • September 1938: As a last resort, Chamberlain along with Mussolini calls for an international conference at Munich on 29 September.

      • Britain, France, Germany and Italy agree to hand the Sudetenland to Germany as well as holding plebiscites in areas with a high German population.

      • The four powers also vow to guarantee the new borders of Czechoslovakia

      • Chamberlain and Hitler sign a joint declaration agreeing to never go to war against each other.

  • France

    • France had been an ally of Czechoslovakia since 1924 and had bowed to defend the country with a treaty in 1935.

    • Lack of consensus on how to respond - Bonnet, Foreign Minister was opposed to war while minister Reyanaud was in favor of resistance.

      • Prime Minister Daladier did not side with any views, thus proving lack of leadership.

    • Moreover, France wanted to avoid being caught in a war since it could not compete with Germany and knew it did not have the support of Britain.

    • Ultimately, France followed Britain, thus pressuring the Czech government to accept Hitler’s claim on the Sudetenland.

      • However, when Hitler’s demands grew, the French mobilized its troops (26 September) and promised to take action if Germany attacked Czechoslovakia.

International response to Italian aggression (1935—1936)

• Abyssinia (1935 - 1936)

  • League of Nations

    • Contrary to Mussolini’s expectation, the League Council condemned the attack, while 50 out of 54 Assembly members voted in favor of economic sanctions

    • November 18, 1935: economic sanctions imposed a ban of sales of arms, rubbers and some metals to Italy; denied loans to Italy and banned most Italian imports.

    • July 1936: Sanctions ended. Italy  had conquered Abyssinia by May 1936.

      • Outcomes:

        • Sanctions were not effective - these were imposed 6 weeks after the invasion and only began to notably affect Italy’s economy in early 1936.

        • Italy could still trade with non-League members such as the USA, Germany and Japan.

          • The US increased oil exports to Italy.

          • November 1936: Japan recognised the “New Italian Empire”

        • The sanctions did not include key war materials such as oil, iron, steel and coal.

        • The slowness and lack of efficient action highlighted the weakness of the League and lack of cooperation of the ‘international community’

          • This was denounced in a speech by Abyssinian emperor Selassie.

  • French and British (The Hoare-Laval Pact, Dec 1935)

    • Neither country wanted to act harshly on Italy at the expense of losing a key ally which could deter Hitler’s aggression. 

    • December 1935: British foreign secretary Samuel Hoare and its French counterpart, Pierre Laval, drafted a secret pact which guarantees ⅔ of Abyssinia to Italy in an attempt to ‘pacify’ Mussolini. Emperor Selassie would be offered land in compensation.

    • Outcomes

      • Both foreign secretaries were forced to resign, given the popular objection to the pact.

      • Demonstrated the weakness of the League of Nations - given France and Britain were concerned with looking for an ally to fight Germany, they would support punishment which did not greatly affected Italy

        • For instance, France offered to not support sanctions and allow full conquest if Mussolini supported them in their fight against Hitler.

      • 1938: Britain and France recognise Italian control in Abyssinia.

• Invasion of Albania (1939)

  • Britain and France

    • Both governments condemned the invasion. 

    • In Britain, it was a turning point for Chamberlain, a proponent of appeasement, given he could not trust in the word of fascist leaders.

      • Chamberlain promised to mobilize troops to the Greek borders and guaranteed a response in case of invasion.

    • France did the same with Rumania, in an attempt to halt Italian expansion in the Mediterranean.

    • Outcomes

      • The issue to guard both countries was pushed forward after reports of Hitler’s plan to invade Romania emerged. 

• Entry into the Second World War (10 June 1940)

  • Britain

    • September 1940: Italian campaign in North Africa (Egypt) is fastly repressed by British troops (Operation Compass)

    • October 1940: Britain sends military supplies to Greece, who quickly halt the advancement of Italian troops.

    • November 1940: The Royal Air Force destroys half of the Italian fleet at Taranto.

    • March 1941: British forces supported Ethiopian fighters, successfully expelling Italian troops.

  • Germany

    • Italian aggression and expansion was an attempt to separate from Hitler. However, German troops ended up supporting Italian forces which had underperformed. 

    • February 1941: German forces are dispatched to Libya, to assist Italian troops

    • April 1941: German troops invade Yugoslavia and Greece, driving British troops which were sent to fight a German invasion.

    • May 1941: German troops capture Greece and kick out stationed British forces. With this conquest, Greece was occupied by both Italian and German forces. 

      • Moreover, Yugoslavia was divided, with Italy receiving some territory which was formalized through the Treaties of Rome (1941) and later known as the Governorate of Dalmatia (1941-44).

International response to German and Italian aggression (1939—1940)

• End of appeasement (March 1939)

  • Britain followed a policy in which they granted some of Hitler’s claims in order to preserve peace. Claims on territories with a large number of German population were accepted.

  • However, when Germany invaded Czechoslovakia in March 1939, Britain changed to a strategy of deterrence, meaning to discourage aggression by threatening reprisals.

    • 31 March 1939: Chamberlain promises to defend Poland if its sovereignty was threatened. France joined the pledge.

      • His promise was vague - it did not commit to defend Polish ‘territorial integrity’ (=borders and lands that made up Poland) and offered a small loan (5 million in contrast to the requested 60 million). 

    • April 1939: Britain announces conscription

    • April - August 1939: Britain and France negotiate with the USSR - in an attempt to deter a German attack on Poland. Furthermore, Chamberlain believed a pact between the three countries would alarm and threaten Hitler.

      • Negotiations did not reach an agreement given Chamberlain’s distrust in the Soviet government. 

    • 25 August 1939: Britain formalized its alliance with Poland - Chamberlain believed this would deter Hitler’s planned invasion.

• Outbreak of war: Invasion of Poland (September 1939)

  • Britain and France

    • Both countries declared war on Germany, two days after the invasion of Poland.

    • Neither country could offer a concrete defense and aid to Poland. France attempted an offensive action when it sent a small-scale force into the Saar, with little success.

    • British and French tactics changed from delaying the German offensive to fighting a defensive war, although German forces outnumbered both armies.

  • USSR

    • As stated in the Nazi-Soviet Pact, the Soviets invaded eastern Poland on September 17.

    • October 1939: Lithuania, Estonia and Latvia forced to sign a ‘mutual assistance’ pact with the USSR, allowing Soviet bases in their countries.

    • November 1939: USSR invades Finland after it refuses to hand over a stretch of territory. The Red Army fought the Fins in the Winter War.

      • March 1940: Finland surrenders, hands territories but remains independent. 

• US Response

  • November 1939: Congress amends the Neutrality Acts, allowing countries at war to purchase American arms. The US remained neutral.

    • In 1940, half of Britain's arms imports came from the US and Canada.

  • September 1940: US directly helps Britain by sending 50 destroyers (a warship) in return for allowing the US to lease air and naval bases in the West Indies and Newfoundland.

  • March 1941: Congress passes the Lend-Lease Act, exempting Britain from paying American aid.