Topic 1.1: Imperialism in the Late 19th Century

Introduction

• European nations sought overseas possessions for wealth, prestige, and power.
• Spain dominated South America in the 16th century.
• Britain and France competed in North America and India during the 18th century.
• Early 19th century saw a decline in European imperialism due to high costs and frequent wars.
• Britain lost American colonies after the War of Independence (1775-1783).
• Spain's influence in South America diminished.
• A new wave of imperialism emerged between 1871 and 1914, focusing on Africa and Asia.

Economic and Political Motives for Imperial Expansion

• Mercantilism drove earlier imperial expansion, aiming to increase wealth through trade.
• Overseas possessions provided:
  • Raw materials
  • Labor
  • Luxury goods (spices, silks)
  • Markets for European goods
• The slave trade was a prime example of exploitation, where African slaves were transported to the Americas for commodities like cotton and sugar.
• Decline of Mercantilism
  • Mercantilism diminished in the 18th century due to costly wars to protect overseas possessions.
  • Adam Smith's "The Wealth of Nations" (1776) argued against government-controlled economies, advocating for production growth through private investment.

Economic Motives for Imperial Expansion

• Industrial Revolution
  • Spurred imperial expansion by creating demand for raw materials and markets for mass-produced goods.
  • Britain initially led industrialization but faced competition from Germany, France, and the USA.
  • France expanded trade in Africa (e.g., Algeria conquest) and Asia (e.g., Indochina naval bases) by the mid-19th century.
• Long Depression (1873-1896)
  • Price deflation caused by overproduction led to declining wages and job losses.
  • Governments sought overseas markets to stabilize economies.
• Raw Material Competition
  • Industrialized nations competed for resources:
    • Cotton (Mozambique, India)
    • Copper (Southern Africa)
    • Rubber (Democratic Republic of Congo)
    • Tin (Malaysia)
    • Tea (China)
    • Diamonds (Transvaal, South Africa)
    • Palm oil (West Africa)

Political Motives for Imperial Expansion

• Nationalism
  • National pride fueled imperialism.
  • Newly unified nations like Germany and Italy sought recognition.
  • France aimed to recover prestige after losing the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871).
  • Britain adopted the two-power standard via the Naval Defense Act of 1889 to maintain naval supremacy.
• Imperialism as a Social Policy
  • Governments used imperialism to unite citizens and distract from domestic inequalities.
  • Politicians like Jules Ferry (France) and Joseph Chamberlain (Britain) promoted imperialism as a tool for social reform.
• Strategic Control of Key Regions
  • Britain's acquisition of Egypt in 1882 secured control over the Suez Canal, vital for trade routes into India and Asia.
  • This encouraged other European nations to expand into Africa.

Emergence of New Imperialism

• Characteristics:
  • Geographic Scope: Shift from the Americas to Africa and Asia.
    • Explorers like David Livingstone discovered valuable minerals in Africa.
    • Henry Mahhat paved French control over Indochina.
  • Peaceful Relations: Treaties like the Treaty of Berlin of 1885 regulated African expansion to avoid conflict.
  • New Imperial Powers: The USA influenced Central and South America, and Japan industrialized and clashed with Russia over Asian dominance.

Factors Enabling New Imperialism

• Medical Advancements
  • Quinine reduced malaria risk, enabling deeper exploration into Africa.
• Technological Advancements
  • Steamships, railways, and telegraphs improved transportation and communication.
  • Advanced weaponry facilitated conquest.

Opposition to Slavery

• By 1820, most European governments banned slavery, viewing it as morally unjust.
• However, slavery persisted in Africa under local chiefs.

Theory of Racial Superiority

• Scientists like Blumenbach classified races hierarchically.
• Darwin's theories were misinterpreted to justify racial superiority.
• Europeans believed they had a duty to civilize inferior races through commerce, Christianity, and Western culture.

Nature and Purpose of the Scramble for Africa

• Exploration Leading to Colonization
  • Explorers sought resources.
  • King Leopold II financed Congo colonization for rubber and ivory profits but was criticized for cruelty.
• European Nations' Involvement
  • Britain: Secured territories like Egypt, South Africa, Nigeria. Cecil Rhodes envisioned a railway from Cairo to Cape Town.
  • France: Expanded inland from Sagal into Algeria for raw materials post-Franco-Prussian defeat.
  • Belgium: King Leopold II exploited Congo's rubber resources but faced backlash over forced labor practices.
  • Portugal: Extended claims over Angola and Mozambique from earlier exploration efforts.
  • Germany: Entered late but acquired Cameroon and Togo in East and Southwest Africa under pressure from industrialists.

Impact of European Imperialism in Africa

• Positive aspects:
  • Administrative systems were established.
  • Education was improved.
  • Transport and communication networks were built.
  • Sanitation and medical care were introduced.
  • Farming methods were modernized.
• Negative consequences:
  • Arbitrary and unfair boundaries ignored tribal and ethnic groups’ needs.
  • African leaders were exiled or killed for resisting colonization.
  • Traditional cultures were undermined.
  • Land ownership shifted to Europeans.
  • Exploitation of resources hindered African industrial development.
  • Forced labor led to abuses such as mutilation under Leopold II's Congo regime.

Domestic Support for Imperial Expansion

• Britain
  • Education promoted national pride using maps of British colonies.
  • Newspapers exaggerated imperial benefits.
  • Literature glorified imperial heroes.
  • Musicals celebrated colonial conquest.
• France
  • The government fostered patriotism post-Franco-Prussian defeat via education, emphasizing French superiority.
  • Missionaries spread Christianity while promoting French culture abroad.
• Germany
  • Initially reluctant under Bismarck, but later pursued colonies due to pressure from industrialists seeking raw materials and markets.
  • Nationalist propaganda united diverse German populations behind imperial ambitions.

Opposition to Imperialism

• Religious leaders and intellectuals criticized the moral injustices of colonization.
  • Joseph Conrad's "Heart of Darkness" is an example.
• Economists like John Hobson argued imperialism was economically and politically harmful due to high costs outweighing the benefits.
• Anti-imperialist movements opposed wars like Britain's Boer Wars as exploitative ventures benefiting entrepreneurs rather than society at large.