AP U.S. Government Mega Review

Constitution Review

  • Great Compromise:
    • Created a bicameral Congress.
      • House: representation based on population.
      • Senate: two senators per state.
  • Three-Fifths Compromise:
    • Counted enslaved people as 3/53/5 of a person for population count and House seats.
  • Slave Importation Compromise:
    • International slave trade could not be banned until 1808.

Article I - Legislative Branch

  • Enumerated powers of Congress:
    • Listed in the Constitution.
    • Examples: declaring war, levying taxes, coining money.
  • Interstate Commerce Clause:
    • Gives Congress the authority to regulate the economy.
    • Broad interpretation since the 1930s is the basis for the expansion of federal powers.
    • Examples: Minimum wage, environmental and civil rights laws, consumer and worker safety laws.
  • Necessary and Proper Clause:
    • Allows Congress to make all laws necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers.
    • Also known as the "elastic clause."
    • Used to stretch Congress' powers beyond those listed.
  • Implied powers:
    • Implicit powers of Congress based on the elastic clause.
    • Upheld in McCulloch v. Maryland.

Article II - Executive Branch

  • Lays out the qualifications, method of election (Electoral College), methods of removal, formal powers of the POTUS.
  • Formal powers include veto, Commander in Chief, State of the Union, pardon, appointments, and treaty-making.

Article III - Judicial Branch

  • Lays out the structure.
    • One Supreme Court and inferior courts as Congress sees fit.
    • Life tenure.
    • Powers/jurisdiction (original vs. appellate) of the judicial branch.
    • Appellate jurisdiction is set by Congress.

Article IV - States' Obligations to One Another

  • Full Faith and Credit Clause:
    • Requires states to recognize civil court rulings of other states.
  • Privileges and Immunities Clause:
    • Prevents state discrimination against citizens of other states.

Article V - Amending the Constitution

  • Sets procedures for amending the Constitution.
  • Requires action from the federal government (usually 2/32/3 Congress to propose) and then action from the states (usually 3/43/4 of state legislatures to ratify).

Article VI - National Supremacy

  • Supremacy Clause:
    • Places the U.S. Constitution and national laws over those of the states.

Amendments: The Bill of Rights (1791) and Beyond

  • 1st Amendment:
    • Freedom of religion, speech, press, peaceful assembly, and petition.
      • Establishment Clause: Limits government endorsement of religious activity.
      • Free Exercise Clause: Limits government restrictions on religious beliefs/practices.
  • 2nd Amendment:
    • Right to keep and bear arms.
  • 4th Amendment:
    • No unreasonable searches/seizures; warrant requirement.
  • 5th Amendment:
    • No forced self-incrimination or double jeopardy.
  • 6th Amendment:
    • Right to counsel and a speedy and public trial.
  • 8th Amendment:
    • No cruel and unusual punishments.
  • 9th Amendment:
    • Other individual rights (unlisted) exist.
  • 10th Amendment:
    • Powers not delegated to the national government are reserved for the states.
      • Reserved powers: Powers set aside for states.
  • 14th Amendment (1868):
    • Contains the Due Process and Equal Protection Clauses.
      • Due Process Clause: states cannot deny citizens their fundamental rights.
        • Basis of selective incorporation (applying the Bill of Rights to states).
      • Equal Protection Clause: basis of court rulings in equal rights cases starting with Brown v. Board of Education.
  • 15th Amendment (1870):
    • Eliminates suffrage restrictions based on race.
  • 17th Amendment (1913):
    • Direct election of senators.
  • 19th Amendment (1920):
    • Female suffrage.
  • 22nd Amendment (1952):
    • Two-term limit for presidency.
  • 24th Amendment (1964):
    • Poll taxes outlawed.
  • 25th Amendment (1967):
    • Rules for presidential disability & VP vacancies.
  • 26th Amendment (1971):
    • 18-year-old suffrage.
  • 27th Amendment (1992):
    • Limited timing of congressional pay raises.

Alternatives to Federalism

  • Unitary system: National government dominates.
  • Confederation: Association of independent states.
  • Federalism: Sharing power between national and state levels of government.
    • Levels of government (national/state) sharing power.
    • States are political entities in their own right (to a limited degree, coequals).
      • Ex: States have equal representation in the Senate and constitutional amendment ratification process.
    • Decentralizes policies and politics.
      • States can often do their own thing.
      • Flexibility: States vary in policies from gun control to marijuana policy.
      • Experimentation: States serve as laboratories to test policies.
        • Ex: Welfare-to-work programs.
      • Increased participation: More access points for citizens to get active in politics.
    • Inequality of services: Education, healthcare.
    • Conflict: State and federal governments clash over policy control.
      • Ex: State lawsuits over the Affordable Care Act, federal/state differences on endangered species.
    • Confusion: Levels of government can fail to coordinate/communicate.
      • Ex: Disaster response/Hurricane Katrina.

The Marble Cake and the Rise of the National Government under Democrats (FDR and LBJ)

  • The New Deal led to the transition from dual federalism (layer cake) to cooperative federalism (marble cake).
  • Cooperative federalism elements:
    • A more active federal government.
      • Social Security, labor, environmental & civil rights laws.
    • Greater sharing of powers over policies formerly exclusive to states.
      • Education, healthcare, welfare.
  • The broad interpretation of the Interstate Commerce Clause is the constitutional basis for expansion of federal powers in the 20th Century.
    • Ex: New Deal agriculture rules-wheat farmer case; Civil Rights Act upheld.

Tools of Federal Control Over States

  • Categorical Grants:
    • Federal agencies design programs for states to carry out, limited state input.
    • Ex: Project grant such as a specific highway or the school lunch program.
  • Federal Mandates:
    • Rules states are legally required to follow, with or without funding.
    • Ex: Americans with Disabilities Act, Clean Air Act.
  • Conditions on Aid (fiscal federalism):
    • Using the threat of withholding grants to influence state policies.
    • Ex: Title IX and federal education funds; raising the drinking age being tied to federal highway funds.

Devolution

  • Attempt to return power back to the states.
  • Goal: Conservative—to shrink the power and responsibilities of the federal government.
  • Examples of Devolution:
    • (1) Block Grants: federal $ given in a general policy area, gives states greater (but not total) control.
    • (2) Welfare Reform Act of 1996 (bipartisan law-President Clinton and a GOP Congress)
      • Ended welfare as a federal entitlement, made welfare a block grant program run by the states.
      • Created a 5-year time limit in TANF (Temporary Assistance to Needy Families).
  • Increased willingness of the Rehnquist Court to limit Congress' powers and revive state powers in the 1990s.
    • Ex: U.S. v. Lopez struck down the federal Gun-Free Schools Act as exceeding Congress' commerce powers.
    • Ex: In 2000, the SCOTUS struck down part of the Violence Against Women Act for the same reason.

The Debate Over the Role of the Federal Government in Public School Education

  • Pro-National Arguments: An active national government in public education is necessary because…
    • Discrimination has been a major historical problem for state and local governments.
      • Legacy of state segregation and massive resistance to desegregation show the need for a strong federal role.
      • Federal laws protecting students with learning disabilities are important to provide fair access.
      • Title IX helped eliminate gender discrimination in K-12 and higher education.
    • Inequality of financial resources amongst states poses a threat to equality of opportunity.
      • Federal aid to education targeted funds to low-income areas as part of LBJ's "War on Poverty" in the 1960s.
  • Pro-State Arguments:The national government has overstepped its role in education because of the…
    • Inflexibility of national rules cause frustration by not adjusting to local needs and issues (No Child Left Behind Act).
    • Lack of accountability that federal agencies have to the public; state/local control of schools maximizes public input.

House

  • Basics
    • 2-year term
    • Based on population
  • Powers
    • Revenue (tax) bills must begin here
    • Power of impeachment
  • Top Dog
    • Speaker
  • Procedure
    • Rules Committee sets limits on floor debate
      • Sets limits on speech time and amendments
      • Discharge petition (to push a bill stuck in committee on to the floor)
      • Committee of the Whole (floor procedure that expedites consideration of the complex and often controversial legislation is referred to it)

Senate

  • Basics
    • 6-year term
    • Based on state equality (2 per state)
  • Powers
    • Confirms appointments & ratifies treaties
    • Conducts trials of impeached officials
  • Top Dog
    • Majority Leader (President of the Senate is the VP who breaks ties and can preside over debate)
  • Procedure
    • Allows for unlimited floor debate--filibusters can be used to delay action,
    • 60 votes required to end (cloture)
    • Hold (attempt by an individual Senator to prevent a bill from reaching the floor for consideration)
    • Unanimous consent (sets aside a floor rule to expedite bill passage)

The enumerated and implied powers in the Constitution allow the creation of public policy by Congress, which includes

  • Power of the purse: Passing a federal budget, raising revenue, and coining money.
  • Declaring war and maintaining the armed forces.
  • Enacting laws that address a wide range of economic, environmental, & social issues.
    • Based on Necessary & Proper Clause.
  • Parties organize Congress Majority party picks leadership posts and committee chairpersons
    • House Speaker & Senate Majority Leader have the most power because they:
      • Assign bills to committee
      • Schedule floor votes
      • Influence committee assignments
    • Whips: Keep counts of votes, try to promote party-line voting (party discipline).
    • Committee chairs: Set committee agenda (prioritizing some bills, can call hearings).
  • Committees are where most of the work of Congress is done (& where most bills die).
    • Standing committees: permanent, subject-matter committees.
      • hold hearings, debate, amend, and vote on bills.
      • engage in oversight to ensure that the bureaucracy is carrying out policies as intended
    • Conference committees: Resolve differences between House/Senate bill versions.
  • Congressional behavior and governing effectiveness are influenced by:
    • Political polarization (ideological divisions) within Congress that can lead to policy gridlock or create the need for negotiation and compromise.
    • Divided government (party split between Congress and POTUS) often leads to partisan votes against presidential initiatives and congressional refusal to confirm judicial appointments
    • Different role conceptions as related to a congressperson's level of constituent (voter) accountability: trustee (low, follow their own judgment), delegate (high, follow district's views) and politico (in-between).
    • Pork barrel legislation (wasteful spending directed to help their home district) and logrolling (vote-trading) affect lawmaking in both chambers.

Fiscal Policy

  • While Congress has the power of the purse to pass a budget, and the president proposes one (and in the end must sign appropriations bills that make up the budget). This may lead to ideological debate and even government shutdowns.
    • Over 2/32/3 of the federal budget is not set by Congress each year because of the growth in mandatory spending such as entitlements which are based on the # of people eligible for benefits
    • Long-term problems with entitlements include: (1) longer life expectancy, (2) baby boomers (3) rising health care costs & (4) new programs (Medicare drug benefit).
    • The remaining part of the budget is called discretionary spending. It is literally everything else the federal government does and can set spending levels for each year (Defense, FBI, health research, highway grants, NASA).
    • As entitlement costs grow, discretionary spending opportunities will decrease unless taxes increase or the budget deficit increases.

Executive Branch

  • Formal and informal powers of the president are used to accomplish a policy agenda. These powers include:
    • Vetoes and pocket vetoes formal powers that enable the president to check Congress
    • Foreign policy - both formal (Commander-in-Chief and treaty-making) and informal (executive agreements) powers that influence relations with foreign nations
    • Bargaining and persuasion - informal power that enables the president to secure congressional action
    • Executive orders - implied from the president's vested executive power, or from power delegated by Congress, executive orders are used by the president to manage the federal government.
    • Executive orders promoted by the president often lead to conflict with the congressional agenda (ex: Obama's DACA order)
    • Signing statements - informal power that informs Congress and the public of the president's interpretation of laws passed by Congress and signed by the president
    • Modern technology, social media (ex: Trump's use of twitter), and rapid response to political issues
    • Nationally broadcast State of the Union messages and the president's bully pulpit used as tools for agenda setting
    • The potential for presidential conflict with the Senate depends upon the type of executive branch appointments, including:
      • Cabinet members (require Senate confirmation)
      • Ambassadors (require Senate confirmation)
      • White House staff (do not require Senate confirmation-work directly for the president)
      • Discretionary and rule-making authority (working out details of a policy not specified in the law) are given to departments, agencies, and commissions to provide for policy implementation (carrying out and administering policies).
    • Tasks performed by bureaucratic departments, agencies, commissions, and government corporations are represented by:
      • Writing, then enforcing regulations (ex: EPA setting clean water rules), and issuing fines for violators.
      • Testifying before Congress
      • Issue networks and "iron triangles" (agencies, congressional committees, interest groups)
      • Political patronage, civil service, and merit system reforms all impact the effectiveness of the bureaucracy by promoting professionalism, specialization, and neutrality.
      • Oversight and methods used by Congress to ensure that legislation is implemented as intended are represented by:
        • Committee oversight hearings and congressional investigations
        • Power of the purse/budget controls and altering laws that grant powers to agencies
      • Formal and informal powers of the president over the bureaucracy are used to maintain its accountability.
        • POTUS appointment of agency heads, budget requests, and executive orders to agencies on how to enforce laws

Judicial Branch

  • Article III created an independent federal judiciary by giving federal judges life tenure and protecting salary levels.
  • Precedents and stare decisis (doctrine of relying on precedents) play an important role in judicial decision-making.
  • Judicial philosophy is a key issue in appointment and confirmation of judges for two reasons:
    • Ideological changes in the composition of the Supreme Court due to presidential appointments have led to the Court's establishing new or rejecting existing precedents
    • Judicial appointments are controversial because they are seen as a major legacy issue for the president-judges can interpret the law in ways favorable to the president's policy agenda long after he leaves office
  • Political discussion about SCOTUS power shows the ongoing debate over judicial activism versus judicial restraint.
    • Judicial restraint: court should defer to decisions of elected branches (look to Framers-original intent)
    • Judicial activism: courts must broadly apply rights to promote protect rights and promote social justice

Restrictions on the Supreme Court

  • Congressional legislation to modify the impact of prior Supreme Court decisions.
  • Legislation altering court's appellate jurisdiction or number of SCOTUS justices (court-packing)
  • Constitutional amendments to overturn a ruling (Congress + States)
  • Judicial appointments (President) and confirmations (Senate) allow election outcomes to effect the ideology of judges
  • The president and states evading or ignoring Supreme Court decisions

Civil Liberties and Civil Rights Review

  • Civil liberties are constitutionally established freedoms that protect citizens, opinions, and property against arbitrary government interference.
  • In a process of selective incorporation, the Supreme Court has used the power of judicial review to interpret the due process clause of the 14th Amendment in such a way as to prevent states from unduly restricting most civil liberties listed in the Bill of Rights.
  • Efforts to balance social order and individual freedom are shown in interpretations of the 1st Amendment that limit speech, including:
    • *Time, place, and manner regulations are content-neutral limitations imposed by the government on expressive activity.
      • ex: capping the number of protesters who may occupy a public forum or barring early-morning or late-evening demonstrations
    • Defamatory, offensive, and obscene statements and gestures
      • Defamation = Libel (false statements that attack a person's reputation public figures must prove actual malice to win a libel suit)
      • Offensive speech is protected but can be regulated by the FCC on radio/TV broadcasting (decency standards on public airwaves)
      • Obscenity is not protected-SCOTUS defined as patently offensive sexual conduct with no redeeming artistic or literary value
  • The Supreme Court has on occasion ruled in favor of states' power to restrict individual liberty; for example, when speech can be shown to increase the danger to public safety.

2nd and 4th Amendment Debates

  • The debate about the Second and Fourth Amendments involves concerns about public safety and whether or not the government regulation of firearms or collection of digital metadata promotes or interferes with public safety and individual rights.
  • Pretrial rights of the accused and the prohibition of unreasonable searches and seizures are intended to ensure that citizen liberties are not eclipsed by the need for social order and security, including:
    • The exclusionary rule, which stipulates that evidence illegally seized by law enforcement officers in violation of the suspect's Fourth Amendment right to be free from unreasonable searches and seizures cannot be used in criminal prosecution
    • The Sixth Amendment right to legal counsel, a speedy and public trial, and an impartial jury
    • Protection against warrantless searches of cell phone data under the Fourth Amendment (SCOTUS struck down in 2015)
    • The USA Freedom Act of 2015 ended the bulk collection of telephone metadata by the National Security Agency.
    • The Miranda rule involves the interpretation and application of accused persons' due process rights as protected by the 5th and 6th Amendments, yet the Supreme Court has sanctioned a public safety exception that allows unwarned interrogation to stand as direct evidence in court during emergency circumstances.
  • Civil Rights vs. Civil Liberties, and SCOTUS Decisions that led to change
  • While a right to privacy is not explicitly named in the Constitution, the Supreme Court has interpreted the due process clause to protect the right of privacy from state infringement.
    • This interpretation of the due process clause has been the subject of controversy, laws that restricted contraceptives (1965), abortion access (Roe v. Wade, 1973) and private sexual activity among consenting adults (2003) have been struck down.

Civil Rights

  • Civil rights protect individuals from discrimination based on characteristics such as race, national origin, religion, and sex
  • Decisions demonstrating that minority rights have been restricted:
    • State laws and Supreme Court holdings restricting African American access to the same restaurants, hotels, schools, etc., as the majority white population based on the "separate but equal" doctrine.
  • The leadership and events associated with civil, women's, and LGBTQ rights are evidence of how the equal protection clause can support and motivate social movements, as represented by:
    • Dr. Martin Luther King's "Letter from a Birmingham Jail" and the civil rights movement of the 1960s
    • The National Organization for Women and the women's rights movement
    • The pro-life (anti-abortion) movement
  • The government can respond to social movements through court rulings and/or policies, as in:
    • Brown v. Board of Education (1954), which declared that race-based school segregation violates the equal protection clause
    • The Civil Rights Act of 1964: put teeth in court orders for integration; pushed through Congress by LBJ
      • made segregation in public facilities and discrimination in employment illegal (race and gender)
      • state and local governments would lose federal grants if they failed to comply with the act
    • Title IX of the Education Amendments Act of 1972: tied federal education funding to gender equity in educational programs
    • The Voting Rights Act of 1965: abolished the use of literacy tests, federal registrars sent into areas with histories of voter discrimination massive increase in Black voter turnout and increased the election of racial minorities
    • The Supreme Court upholding the rights of the majority in cases that limit and prohibit majority-minority districting (Shaw v. Reno)
    • The debate on affirmative action includes justices who insist that the Constitution is colorblind and those who maintain that it forbids only racial classifications designed to harm minorities, not help them.

The American Political Culture

  • American political culture is comprised of citizens' beliefs about government, including their perceptions, relationships, and interactions relative to one another and to their government.
  • Core beliefs about government center around different interpretations and applications of political values, such as:
    • Individualism (the focus on individual rights and responsibilities).
    • The rule of law (the notion that the law is supreme over all persons).
    • Limited government (the idea that the government's power is enumerated and constrained by constitutional rules).
    • Equality of opportunity.
  • As a result of globalization, U.S. political culture has both influenced and been influenced by the values of other countries.
  • Citizens learn of and develop attitudes about government through political socialization.
  • Several factors contribute to political socialization including family, schools, peers, and social environments.
  • How much influence these factors have on a person's political beliefs relates in turn to:
    • Lifecycle effects, dispositions that change with age or membership in a group experiencing the same events at the same time.
    • Generational effects, which involve exposure across ages and groups to the same political information.
  • Both lifecycle and generational effects are fueled by past and present political events

Public Opinion Data

  • Public opinion data that can impact elections & policy debates is affected by such scientific polling types and methods as:
    • Types of polls:
      • Opinion polls, benchmark or tracking polls, entrance and exit polls.
      • Benchmark poll: first poll taken in a campaign
      • Tracking poll: continuous polling during campaigns to gauge shifts in support
      • Entrance poll: taken directly before voters cast their votes; the voter is unlikely change his/her mind after the poll, typically making the margin of error lower than that of an opinion poll.
      • Exit poll: taken immediately after the voters have exited the polling stations
    • Sampling techniques: key is having a random sample that is a representative group (ex: Literary Digest fiasco in 1936)
    • Identification of respondents: random digit-dialing and being sure to include cell-phone users
    • Mass survey (large sample with more superficial feedback) or focus group (small sample with more in-depth feedback)
    • Sampling error → degree of confidence in the poll (ex: +or- 33%) based mostly on sample size and selection methods
    • Type and format of questions: biased or leading questions can skew poll results
    • The relationship between scientific polling and elections and policy debates is affected by the: Importance of public opinion as a source of political influence in a given election or policy debate Reliability and veracity of public opinion data.

Public Opinion and Ideology

  • The Democratic Party (D or DEM) platforms generally align more closely to liberal ideological positions, and the Republican Party (R or GOP) platforms generally align more closely to conservative ideological positions.
  • Liberal ideologies:
    • Favor more governmental regulation of the marketplace-based on the Keynesian economic theory that government can directly influence the demand for goods and services by altering fiscal (tax policies and public expenditures) and monetary (interest rates) policy to minimize recessions/unemployment.
    • Liberal ideologies tend to think that personal privacy-areas of behavior where government should not intrude extends further than conservative ideologies do--ex: favoring abortion rights or proposing limits on government surveillance powers for counter-terrorism. An exception to this is in the area of religious freedom
  • Conservative ideologies
    • Favor fewer economic regulations-based on supply side theory that focuses on influencing the supply of labor and goods, using tax cuts & benefit cuts as incentives to work and produce goods
    • Conservative ideologies favor less government involvement to ensure social and economic equality (ex: opposing affirmative action and social-welfare benefits) but more government activism to promote traditional morality (abortion restrictions, sodomy laws)

Libertarian Ideologies

  • Libertarian ideologies favor little or no regulation of the economic marketplace beyond the protection of property rights and voluntary trade (ex: they favor abolishing Social Security and Medicare).
  • On social policy, libertarian ideologies disfavor any governmental intervention beyond the protection of private property and individual liberty (ex: legalization of drugs).
  • Linkage Institutions
    • The principle of self-government is dependent on both citizen participation and the operation of the various linkage institutions that help citizens connect with the government.
    • Linkage institutions are channels that allow individuals to communicate their preferences to policy-makers which helps people become a part of the policy-making process.
    • Examples of linkage institutions: Parties, Interest Groups, Elections, Media

Media Overview

  • Traditional news media, new communication technologies, and advances in social media have profoundly influenced how citizens routinely acquire political information, including new events, investigative journalism, election coverage, and political commentary.
  • Playing an important role in this process, the media report public opinion data and can sometimes influence the formation of that opinion as well.
  • The role the media play in this process is at times criticized for the bias demonstrated in the format, context, and content of information distributed as well as the manner in which that bias impacts public understanding of political information.
  • Roles Played By the Media and Impact
    • (1) Gatekeeper: new outlets decide what stories to cover and prioritize level of media coverage impacts the policy agenda (issues people focus on)
    • (2) Scorekeeper: media focus on polling data the media's use of polling results can impact elections by turning such events into "horse races" based more on popularity and factors other than qualifications and platforms of candidates.
    • (3) Watchdog: investigative journalism on corruption/unearthing scandals; attempt by the press to hold governments accountable
    • Increased media choices impacting nature of democratic debate
      • Ideologically oriented programming can drive political polarization.
      • Uncertainty over the credibility of news sources and information has reduced public trust in media outlets
      • consumer-driven media outlets and emerging technologies that reinforce existing beliefs

Political Parties Election Campaigns

  • Parties have adapted to candidate-centered campaigns.
  • Functions and impact of political parties on the electorate
  • Mobilization and education of voters
  • Party platforms mobilize education of voters during National conventions
  • Campaign management, including fundraising and media strategy
  • Overtime election results change campaign laws parties respond to election results
  • The structure of parties has been influenced by critical elections, Regional alignment, Campaign Finance law changes in communicating and data-management technology.
  • Barriers to third-parties
    • winner-take-all voting/single-member districts serve as a structural barrier
    • The incorporation of third-party agendas into platforms of major political parties serves as a barrier

Interest groups

  • Interest groups represent very specific or more general interests, and can educate/lobby office holders, draft legislation, and file lawsuits in court to challenge gov't policies
  • Interest groups exert influence through long-standing relationships with bureaucratic agencies, congressional committees, and other interest groups; such relationships are described as "iron triangles" and issue networks and they help interest groups exert influence across political party coalitions.
  • Representative democracies can take several forms along this scale:
    • Participatory democracy, which emphasizes broad participation in politics and civil society
    • Pluralist democracy, which recognizes group-based activism by nongovernmental interests striving for impact on political decision making
    • Elite democracy, which emphasizes limited participation in politics and civil society (dominance of wealthy/corporate interests).
    • Various social movements develop in response to conditions perceived as negatively impacting specific groups of people
  • Example: women's rights, Single-issue groups, ideological/social movements, and protest movements form with the goal of impacting society and policy making.
  • Election Laws and the 15th, 17th, 19th, 24th and 26th Amendments

Elections

  • Elections also connect citizens with government. The number of eligible voters has expanded over time based on various constitutional provisions
  • Voter turnout is impacted by the various provisions that states implement regarding voter requirements and qualifications that involve issues not addressed in those amendments.
  • State voter registration laws (Election-day voter registration is correlated with higher turnout.)
  • Demographic characteristics/Political efficacy and levels of engagements.
  • Rational choice-Voting based on what is perceived to be in the citizen's interest Retrospective Voting to see if party should be reelected. Party-line voting (party base is) prospective voters voting on what party could do in the future.
  • Party identifications
  • Modern Campaigns include Dependance on professional consultants.
  • rising campaign costs and intensive fundraising efforts.
  • Incumbency advantage phenomenon (incumbent presidents have bully pulpit media access and the advantage of unified fundraising challengers lack)
  • Federal elections are impacted by incumbent advantage and media.
  • The Electoral College: created to limit the impact of uneducated election
  • The winner-take-all allocation of votes per state
  • Lead to Presidential results often being determined as how candidates perform in competitive battleground states
  • The process and outcomes in U.S. Congressional elections are impacted by:Incumbency advantage phenomenon
  • Federal laws and case law pertaining to campaign finance demonstrate the ongoing debate over the role of money in political and free speech
  • Examples of Federal Election Commission Law are Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002, which was an effort to ban soft money donations to parties and reduce attack ads Different types of political action committees PAC and super PAC influence elections and policy making through fundraising and spending.