Key Terms

Biological Approach:

1. Techniques (MRI, fMRI, PET) 

• MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging): A brain scanning technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to create detailed images of brain structure. 

• fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging): Measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow, showing which areas are active during tasks. 

• PET (Positron Emission Tomography): Uses a radioactive tracer to measure metabolic activity in the brain, showing areas involved in different cognitive functions. 

2. Localization of Behavior – The idea that specific parts of the brain are responsible for specific functions, such as speech, memory, or emotions. Example: Broca’s area (speech production) and the hippocampus (memory formation).

3. Neuroplasticity – The brain’s ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections in response to learning, experience, or injury. 

4. Neurotransmitters – Chemical messengers in the brain that transmit signals across synapses between neurons. Examples: Dopamine (pleasure), Serotonin (mood), Acetylcholine (memory).

5. Antagonist – A substance that blocks or reduces the effect of a neurotransmitter by binding to its receptor. Example: Beta-blockers inhibit adrenaline.

6. Neural Networks – Groups of interconnected neurons that work together to process information and control behavior. 

7. Neural Pruning – The process where unused neural connections are eliminated to make brain function more efficient, typically occurring during development. 

8. Agonist – A substance that enhances or mimics the action of a neurotransmitter. Example: Nicotine mimics acetylcholine. 

9. Inhibitory or Excitatory Synapses 

• Inhibitory synapses decrease the likelihood of a neuron firing an action potential (e.g., GABA).

• Excitatory synapses increase the likelihood of a neuron firing (e.g., Glutamate). 

10. Genetic Similarities – The degree to which genetic material is shared among individuals, often studied in twins to understand the genetic basis of behavior.

11. Evolutionary Argument – The idea that behaviors have evolved through natural selection because they were advantageous for survival and reproduction. Example: Fear of snakes. 

12. Kinship Studies – Research comparing relatives (e.g., twins, siblings, parents) to determine the heritability of traits and behaviors. 

13. Hormones – Chemical messengers secreted by glands into the bloodstream that affect behavior. Example: Cortisol (stress), Testosterone (aggression), Oxytocin (bonding). 

14. Pheromones – Chemical signals released by an individual that can affect the behavior of others, often related to attraction and mating.

Cognitive Approach: 

1. Model of Memory – Theoretical frameworks explaining how memory works. Examples include the Multi-Store Model and the Working Memory Model. 

2. Schema Theory – The idea that mental structures (schemas) help organize knowledge and guide cognitive processes like perception, memory, and problem-solving. 

3. Theory of Thinking and Decision-Making – Describes how humans make decisions, often using dual-process models: 

• System 1 (Intuitive Thinking): Fast, automatic, based on heuristics. 

• System 2 (Rational Thinking): Slow, logical, effortful. 

4. Working Memory Model – Proposes that short-term memory consists of multiple components, including: 

• Central Executive (controls attention) 

• Phonological Loop (verbal info)

• Visuospatial Sketchpad (visual and spatial info) 

• Episodic Buffer (integrates info across components) 

5. Multi-Store Model – A theory of memory proposing three stages: 

• Sensory Memory (brief storage of sensory input) 

• Short-Term Memory (limited capacity, about 7 items)

• Long-Term Memory (potentially unlimited storage) 

6. Rational/Intuitive Thinking 

• Rational Thinking: Logical, deliberate, effortful thinking (System 2). 

• Intuitive Thinking: Quick, automatic, unconscious decision-making (System 1). 

7. Reconstructive Memory – The theory that memories are not exact copies of events but are reconstructed using prior knowledge, schemas, and new information. Can lead to distortions or false memories.

Sociocultural Approach: 

1. Social Identity Theory – The idea that people derive part of their identity from the groups they belong to, leading to in-group favoritism and out-group discrimination. 

2. Social Cognitive Theory – Explains how people learn behaviors through observation, imitation, and modeling. Emphasizes the role of reinforcement and self-efficacy. 

3. Stereotype – A generalized belief about a group of people that influences perception and behavior. Can be positive or negative. 

4. Cultural Dimensions – A framework developed by Hofstede that explains how cultures vary in values and behaviors. Examples include: 

• Individualism vs. Collectivism (focus on self vs. group)

• Power Distance (acceptance of hierarchy) 

5. Enculturation – The process by which individuals learn and adopt the behaviors, norms, and values of their own culture. 

6. Acculturation – The process of cultural change and adaptation when individuals are exposed to a new culture. Can involve assimilation, integration, separation, or marginalization.