APUSH Midterm review

Period 1: 1491-1607

1.1 Context: European Encounters in the Americas

• Christopher Columbus Arrival: Arrived in 1492, marking the start of the Contact Period, a time of sustained interaction between Europe and the Americas. This interaction led to significant changes for both Europeans and Native Americans.

• Bering Land Bridge: Connected Asia and North America, allowing the first people to inhabit the Americas thousands of years ago. This migration led to the development of diverse Native American cultures across the continent.

• Native Americans in Pre-Columbian North America: Native Americans developed a wide range of complex societies, including:

  • Mississippian Culture: Known for large earthen mounds and complex social hierarchies.

  • Puebloan Culture: Developed intricate irrigation systems and multi-story dwellings in the Southwest.

  • Great Plains Tribes: Nomadic hunter-gatherers who followed buffalo herds.

  • Northwest Coast Tribes: Developed thriving societies based on fishing and maritime trade.

• Culture Clash: The arrival of Europeans brought significant changes to Native American societies. Diseases brought by Europeans, such as smallpox and measles, decimated Native American populations. Conflicts over land ownership and resources also led to violence and displacement.

1.2 Native American Societies Before European Contact

• Permanent Settlements: Many Native American societies developed permanent settlements, often centered around agriculture, fishing, or trade. These settlements could be small villages or large cities.

• Nomadic Hunting and Gathering Tribes: Some tribes, particularly those on the Great Plains, maintained nomadic lifestyles, following animal herds for sustenance.

1.3 European Exploration In The Americas

• Columbus Sails Circa 1492: Motivated by the desire for new trade routes to Asia, Columbus's voyages led to Spanish colonization of the Americas.

• The Age of Exploration: Driven by the pursuit of gold, glory, and religious conversion, other European powers, such as England, France, and the Netherlands, followed Spain's lead in exploring and colonizing the Americas.

1.4 Columbian Exchange, Spanish Exploration, and Conquest

• The Columbian Exchange: This period of widespread exchange of plants, animals, diseases, and cultures had a profound and lasting impact on both the Old World (Europe, Africa, Asia) and the New World (Americas).

• Colonization: European powers established colonies in the Americas, exploiting resources and establishing political control. This often involved the displacement and subjugation of Native American populations.

• Spanish Colonial Power: Spain was the first major European power to colonize the Americas. They established a vast empire in Central and South America, focusing on the extraction of gold and silver and the conversion of Native Americans to Christianity.

• Native vs. European Views: Significant differences existed between European and Native American views on land ownership, religion, and social organization. Europeans viewed land as a commodity to be owned and exploited, while many Native American cultures believed in collective ownership and a spiritual connection to the land.

1.5 Labor, Slavery, and Caste in the Spanish Colonial System

• Introduction of Slavery in the American Colonies: The demand for labor in the Americas led to the enslavement of Africans. This system of forced labor was central to the development of plantation economies in the Americas.

• The Slave Trade: The transatlantic slave trade involved the forced transportation of millions of Africans across the Atlantic Ocean to the Americas. This was a period of immense human suffering and exploitation.  

• The Middle Passage: The horrific journey of enslaved Africans across the Atlantic Ocean, during which many died of disease, starvation, or violence.

• Slavery in the South: Enslaved Africans were primarily used for labor-intensive agriculture in the Southern colonies, such as the cultivation of tobacco, cotton, and rice.

• Slavery in the North: While less prevalent, slavery existed in the North, primarily in domestic service and some agricultural settings.

1.6 Cultural Interactions Between Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans

• The Birth of a New Society: The interaction between Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans led to the emergence of new societies and cultures in the Americas. This included the blending of cultural traditions, the exchange of ideas, and the development of new forms of art, music, and religion.

• Competition for Global Dominance: European powers competed for control of the Americas, leading to wars and alliances. This competition shaped the political landscape of the Americas for centuries to come.

• Native American Resistance and Adaptation: Native Americans resisted European colonization through various means, including warfare, diplomacy, and cultural preservation. They also adapted to the changing environment, incorporating some European technologies and practices while maintaining their own traditions.

• Enslaved African Resistance and Adaptation: Enslaved Africans resisted their enslavement through various means, including work slowdowns, sabotage, and rebellion. They also developed unique cultural expressions, such as music, dance, and religion, which reflected their African heritage and their experiences in slavery.

• The English Arrive: The English established colonies in Virginia and New England, each with distinct social and economic structures.

• Jamestown and the Virginia Company: Jamestown, the first permanent English settlement in North America, faced early struggles but eventually thrived due to the cultivation of tobacco.

• French Colonization of North America: French colonization focused on fur trade and had a smaller impact on native populations than Spanish or English colonization.

• The Pilgrims and the Massachusetts Bay Company: These groups of English settlers established colonies based on religious beliefs, seeking to create a "city upon a hill" in the New World.

• Puritan Philosophy: Puritan beliefs, such as the importance of hard work, religious devotion, and community, shaped the social and political life of New England.

• Religious Intolerance: Conflicts over religious freedom led to the persecution of dissenters, such as Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson.

• Economic and Social Differences: Diverging economies and social structures developed in different regions. The South became increasingly reliant on plantation agriculture and slavery, while the North developed a more diverse economy based on trade, shipbuilding, and small-scale farming.

Period 2: 1607-1754

2.1 Colonization: British Treatment of the Colonies

• Salutary Neglect: England largely allowed the colonies to self govern, leading to a high degree of autonomy. This hands-off approach allowed the colonies to develop their own political institutions and economic systems

• English Regulation of Colonial Trade: The British implemented mercantilist policies, such as the Navigation Acts, to control colonial trade and benefit the English economy. These acts restricted colonial trade with other countries, forcing them to rely on england for goods and markets

• Colonial Governments: Colonies developed their own representative assemblies,, such as the House of Burgesses in Virginia, providing some degree of self-governance. These assemblies had the power to levy taxes and pass laws, giving colonists a voice in their own affairs

2.2 The Regions of the British Colonies

• Development of the Colonies: The colonies developed distinct regional economies and cultures

  • New England: Focused on trade, shipbuilding, and fishing

  • Middle Colonies: Known for their diverse population and a mixed economy of agriculture and trade

  • Southern Colonies: Relied heavily on plantation agriculture and enslaved labor

• Puritan Immigration: The arrival of Puritans to New England shaped the region's social and religious values. Their emphasis on hard work, religious devotion, and community helped to shape the character of New England society.

• Differences between New England and Chesapeake: Significant differences existed between the regions, including climate, economy, social structure, and demographics. New England had a more homogenous population and a stronger emphasis on religion, while the Chesapeake region was more diverse and focused on plantation agriculture.

• Other Early Colonies: Colonies like Maryland, New York, Pennsylvania, and Carolina developed with diverse populations and varying degrees of religious tolerance. Maryland was founded as a haven for Catholics, while Pennsylvania, founded by William Penn, welcomed people of various faiths.

• Slavery in the Colonies: The institution of slavery became increasingly important in the Southern colonies, particularly in the cultivation of cash crops like tobacco and rice. The arrival of enslaved Africans from the West Indies had a profound impact on the social and economic development of the South.

2.3 Diversity in the Colonies

• Population Growth in the Colonies: The colonial population grew rapidly, with increasing numbers of immigrants from various European countries and enslaved Africans. This influx of people contributed to the cultural diversity of the colonies.

• Rural Life in the Colonies: Most colonists lived in rural areas, with agriculture being the primary economic activity. Life in rural areas was often challenging, with limited access to education and healthcare.

• Black People in the Colonies: Enslaved Africans faced varying conditions across the colonies, with the most severe forms of slavery found in the South. They developed unique cultural expressions, such as music, dance, and religion, to cope with the realities of slavery.

• Education in the Colonies: Educational opportunities were limited, with most colonists receiving little formal education. However, some colleges, such as Harvard and Yale, were established to train ministers and other professionals.

• Regional Differences in the Colonies: The colonies developed distinct regional identities, influenced by factors such as climate, economy, and social structure. These regional differences would play a significant role in the development of American identity.

2.4 Major Events in the Period

• Bacon's Rebellion: A rebellion in Virginia that highlighted social and economic tensions between the elite and the frontier settlers. This rebellion raised concerns about the growing power of wealthy planters and the rights of ordinary colonists.

• Stono Rebellion: A slave rebellion in South Carolina that led to increased efforts to control enslaved populations. This event demonstrated the resistance of enslaved people to their condition and the fear that slave rebellions inspired among white colonists.

• Salem Witch Trials: A period of mass hysteria in Massachusetts, reflecting social and religious anxieties. This event highlights the dangers of fear and suspicion in a society.

• First Great Awakening: A wave of religious revivalism that swept through the colonies in the 1730s and 1740s. This movement challenged traditional religious authority and promoted a more personal and emotional form of Christianity.

• Benjamin Franklin: A prominent figure in the Enlightenment, known for his scientific discoveries, political activism, and contributions to American culture. Franklin embodied the spirit of the Enlightenment with his emphasis on reason, innovation, and civic engagement.

Period 3: 1754:1763

3.1 The Seven Years’ War (1764-1763)

• The Seven Years' War (French and Indian War): A global conflict between Britain and France, fought in Europe, the Americas, and India. In North America, it resulted from competition over land and resources in the Ohio Valley. The war pitted British colonists and Native American allies against French forces and their Native American allies.

• The Seven Years' War: Consequences: British victory had significant consequences.

  • Acquisition of Territory: Britain gained control of Canada and French territories east of the Mississippi River, expanding its colonial empire in North America.

  • Increased Tensions with Native Americans: The war disrupted the balance of power among European powers and Native American tribes. Pontiac's Rebellion, a Native American uprising against British rule, followed the war, highlighting the challenges of British control in the West.

  • Growing Imperial Ambitions: The war increased British confidence in its military and imperial power, leading to a more assertive and controlling approach towards the colonies.

• Albany Plan of Union: Proposed by Benjamin Franklin, this plan aimed to unite the colonies for defense against French aggression. It called for an intercolonial government with the power to levy taxes and raise an army. However, the plan was rejected by the colonies, who were reluctant to relinquish their autonomy.

3.2 Taxation without Representation

• British Laws and Policies: Following the Seven Years' War, Britain imposed new taxes on the colonies, including the Sugar Act, the Stamp Act, and the Townshend Acts, to help pay for the war debt and maintain a standing army in the colonies.

• Colonial Response: Colonists strongly objected to these taxes, arguing that they had no representation in Parliament and therefore should not be taxed without their consent. They argued for the principle of "no taxation without representation."

• The Stamp Act: This act, which taxed various legal documents and printed materials, sparked widespread protests and boycotts throughout the colonies. Groups like the Sons of Liberty emerged to organize resistance.

• The Townshend Acts: These acts imposed duties on imported goods, leading to renewed colonial resistance and boycotts. The Townshend Acts also included measures that further restricted colonial autonomy, such as the suspension of the New York Assembly

3.3 Congress

• The First Continental Congress: Convened in 1774, this gathering of colonial delegates aimed to address British grievances and develop a united response to British policies. The Congress issued a Declaration of Rights and Grievances, called for a boycott of British goods, and established the Continental Association to enforce the boycott.

• The Shot Heard ‘Round the World: The Battles of Lexington and Concord marked the beginning of the American Revolution, as colonists resisted British efforts to seize their weapons. These battles signaled the start of armed conflict between the colonies and Great Britain.

3.4 The Pre-Revolutionary War Era

• Loyalists: Some colonists remained loyal to the British Crown, fearing the consequences of revolution. They included many government officials, wealthy merchants, and those who feared social and economic disruption.

• Patriots: Those who supported independence gained momentum, driven by ideas of liberty and self-government. They argued for the right of the colonies to govern themselves and resist British control.

• Common Sense: Thomas Paine's influential pamphlet argued for independence and republicanism, rallying public support for the cause. "Common Sense" presented a powerful and accessible argument for breaking away from British rule.

• Declaration of Independence: This landmark document, authored by Thomas Jefferson, declared the independence of the thirteen colonies from British rule and outlined the principles of self-government and individual rights. It articulated the core ideals of American democracy, including the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.

3.5 The Articles of Confederation

• Articles of Confederation: The first constitution of the United States, which created a weak central government with limited powers. The Articles reflected the colonists' fear of a strong central government and their desire for states' rights.

• Limitations of the Articles of Confederation: The Articles of Confederation proved to be inadequate, lacking the power to effectively govern the nation. Key weaknesses included:

  • Lack of power to tax

  • Lack of power to regulate interstate commerce

  • Inability to raise a standing army

  • Difficulty in amending the Articles

3.6 A New Constitution

• Constitutional Convention: Delegates from 12 states met in Philadelphia in 1787 to revise the Articles of Confederation, ultimately drafting a new Constitution.

• Key Features of the Constitution: The Constitution established a federal system of government with three branches (legislative, executive, and judicial), a system of checks and balances, and a division of powers between the federal and state governments.

• Ratification of the Constitution: The ratification of the Constitution faced opposition from Anti-Federalists, who feared a powerful central government. The inclusion of the Bill of Rights, which guaranteed individual liberties, ultimately secured its ratification.

3.7 The Washington Presidency

• George Washington as First President: Washington set precedents for presidential leadership, including the creation of a cabinet and the establishment of a neutral foreign policy. He sought to maintain national unity and avoid entangling alliances with foreign powers.

• Hamilton's Financial Plan: Alexander Hamilton, the first Secretary of the Treasury, proposed a plan to strengthen the national economy, including the creation of a national bank and the assumption of state debts by the federal government. This plan sparked debate and controversy, but ultimately helped to stabilize the nation's finances.

• French Revolution and Washington Administration: The French Revolution sparked debate within the United States, leading Washington to issue the Neutrality Proclamation, declaring the nation's neutrality in the conflict between France and Great Britain.

• Origins of Two-Party System: Political divisions emerged between Federalists, who favored a strong central government, and Democratic-Republicans, who advocated for states' rights and a more limited federal government. These early political parties shaped the course of American politics for decades to come.

3.8 The Republican Motherhood

• Republican Motherhood: This ideology emphasized the importance of women in raising virtuous citizens for the new republic. Women were seen as responsible for educating their children in the principles of liberty and republicanism, preparing them to be active and informed participants in the democratic process.

3.9 The Adams Presidency

• John Adams: Succeeded Washington as president, facing challenges such as foreign policy crises with France and domestic political divisions.

• The XYZ Affair: A diplomatic crisis with France that fueled anti-French sentiment in the United States.

• Alien and Sedition Acts: Controversial laws passed by the Federalist-controlled Congress that limited freedom of speech and press. These laws were criticized for violating the First Amendment and were ultimately seen as an overreach of federal power.

• Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions: These resolutions, drafted by Jefferson and Madison, asserted the right of states to nullify federal laws they deemed unconstitutional. While these resolutions did not have immediate legal effect, they laid the groundwork for future debates about states' rights and the balance of power between the federal and state governments.

Period 4: 1800-1848

4.1 The “Revolution of 1800”

• Election of 1800: The election of Thomas Jefferson marked a peaceful transfer of power from the Federalists to the Democratic-Republicans. This peaceful transition solidified the two-party system in the United States and demonstrated the strength of American democracy.

• Midnight Appointments: In a last-minute effort to maintain Federalist influence, President John Adams appointed a large number of Federalist judges. President Jefferson refused to recognize these appointments, leading to the landmark Supreme Court case Marbury v. Madison.

• Marbury v. Madison: This Supreme Court case established the principle of judicial review, giving the Court the power to declare laws unconstitutional. This power check significantly strengthened the judicial branch of the U.S. government.  

• Louisiana Purchase: President Jefferson's purchase of the Louisiana Territory from France doubled the size of the United States. This acquisition had a profound impact on westward expansion and American identity.

• Lewis and Clark Expedition: Sent by President Jefferson, Lewis and Clark explored the newly acquired Louisiana Territory, gathering valuable scientific and geographical information. Their journey also helped to establish American claims to the Oregon Territory.

• Embargo Act (1807): President Jefferson's attempt to avoid war with Britain and France by prohibiting American trade with foreign countries. The embargo had a devastating impact on the American economy, leading to widespread smuggling and economic hardship.

4.2 Madison’s Presidency and the War of 1812

• War of 1812: The United States went to war with Britain over trade restrictions and the impressment of American sailors. The war was a close-fought conflict that ultimately ended in a stalemate with the Treaty of Ghent.

• Hartford Convention: Federalists met to discuss their grievances with the war, including concerns about the growing power of the federal government. These concerns were not well-received, and the Federalist Party declined in influence after the war.

• Era of Good Feelings: With the decline of the Federalist Party, there was a period of one-party rule by the Democratic-Republicans. This period was marked by a sense of national unity and optimism.

• Monroe Doctrine: President James Monroe declared that the United States would not tolerate European intervention in the Western Hemisphere. This doctrine asserted American dominance in the Western Hemisphere and helped to shape U.S. foreign policy for generations

4.3 Political Events and Social Developments

• Election of 1824: Andrew Jackson won the popular vote but lost the election to John Quincy Adams. Jackson's supporters alleged a "corrupt bargain" between Adams and Henry Clay, which fueled Jackson's political ambitions.

• Jacksonian Democracy: Andrew Jackson's presidency was marked by increased democracy, with more white men able to vote. Jackson also expanded presidential power and used the spoils system to reward his supporters with government jobs.

• Indian Removal Act: This act led to the forced removal of Native Americans from their ancestral lands, including the devastating Trail of Tears. This policy had a profound and lasting impact on Native American communities.

• Nullification Crisis: South Carolina threatened to nullify a federal tariff, leading to a confrontation with the federal government. This crisis raised questions about the balance of power between the states and the federal government.

• Bank War: President Jackson vetoed the rechartering of the Second Bank of the United States, weakening the power of the national bank and leading to a period of economic instability.

• Panic of 1837: A major economic depression occurred during President Martin Van Buren's term. This depression had a significant impact on the American economy and contributed to the rise of the Whig Party.

4.4 The Election of 1836 and the Rise of the Whigs

• Whig Party: The Whig Party formed in opposition to President Jackson and the Democratic Party. The Whigs advocated for a stronger national government and economic development.

• Election of 1836: Martin Van Buren was elected president but faced a difficult economic situation.

• William Henry Harrison: The first Whig president, Harrison died in office after only a month.

• John Tyler: Vice President Tyler became president after Harrison's death. Tyler was a former Democrat and disagreed with many Whig policies, leading to a rift within the party.

4.5 Westward Expansion

• Louisiana Purchase: The Louisiana Purchase opened up vast new territories for American settlement.

• Manifest Destiny: The belief that the United States was destined to expand westward across North America. This belief fueled westward expansion and played a significant role in the acquisition of new territories.

• Texas Revolution: Texas declared its independence from Mexico, leading to its eventual annexation by the United States.

• Oregon Territory: The United States and Britain agreed to jointly occupy the Oregon Territory, which was later divided between the two countries.

• California Gold Rush: The discovery of gold in California led to a massive influx of people to the region, transforming California from a sparsely populated territory to a thriving state.

4.6 Social History, 1800-1860

• Industrialization: The North experienced rapid industrial growth, while the South remained largely agricultural. This economic disparity between the North and South would contribute to the growing tensions that led to the Civil War.

• Cotton Gin: The invention of the cotton gin increased the demand for slave labor in the South, reinforcing the institution of slavery and its economic importance.

• Urbanization: Cities grew rapidly, leading to social and economic problems such as poverty, overcrowding, and disease.

• Westward Expansion: The westward movement of settlers led to conflict with Native Americans and environmental challenges.

• Social Reform Movements: The Second Great Awakening led to a wave of social reform movements, including abolitionism, women's rights, and temperance. These movements challenged existing social norms and advocated for greater equality and social justice.

Period 5: 1800-1848

5.1 Political and Judicial Activity Before the War

• 1844 Election: The election of James K. Polk as president marked a turning point in American history. Polk, a Democrat, ran on a platform of expansionism, promising to expand the United States' borders to the Pacific Ocean. His victory over Whig candidate Henry Clay signaled a shift in national priorities towards westward expansion and increased tensions over slavery.

• Texas & Oregon: Polk's presidency saw the annexation of Texas and the peaceful acquisition of Oregon Territory from Great Britain. These territorial gains fueled the debate over the expansion of slavery into new lands.

• Mexican-American War (1846-1848): The desire for westward expansion led to the Mexican-American War. The war began over a dispute about the border between Texas and Mexico and resulted in a decisive American victory. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which ended the war, ceded vast territories, including California and New Mexico, to the United States.

• Slavery Expansion Debates: The acquisition of new territories intensified the debate over the expansion of slavery. The Wilmot Proviso, a proposed amendment to prohibit slavery in any territory acquired from Mexico, sparked fierce debate in Congress and highlighted the growing sectional divide between the North and the South.

5.2 The Compromise of 1850

• Background: The discovery of gold in California led to a rapid influx of settlers and a push for statehood. However, the question of whether California would be a free or slave state threatened to tear the nation apart.

• Key Players: Henry Clay, a veteran statesman, proposed a series of compromises to address the growing sectional tensions. John C. Calhoun, a staunch defender of slavery, opposed any restrictions on the expansion of slavery. Daniel Webster, a prominent Whig senator, argued for compromise to preserve the Union. Stephen Douglas, a rising political star, played a crucial role in securing the passage of the Compromise.

• Compromise: The Compromise of 1850, a package of five separate bills, was a complex and controversial attempt to resolve the issue of slavery in the territories. Key provisions included the admission of California as a free state, the creation of the territories of Utah and New Mexico with popular sovereignty (allowing residents to decide on the issue of slavery), the abolition of the slave trade in Washington, D.C., and the passage of a strengthened Fugitive Slave Act.

• Consequences: While the Compromise temporarily eased tensions, it ultimately failed to resolve the underlying issues of slavery and sectionalism. The Fugitive Slave Act, in particular, outraged many in the North and fueled the abolitionist movement.

• Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854): The Kansas-Nebraska Act, championed by Stephen Douglas, repealed the Missouri Compromise and allowed for popular sovereignty in the Kansas and Nebraska territories. This act ignited a violent conflict known as "Bleeding Kansas," as pro-slavery and anti-slavery forces clashed over the future of the territories.

• Dred Scott Decision (1857): The Supreme Court's Dred Scott decision declared that enslaved people were not citizens and that Congress had no power to prohibit slavery in the territories. This decision further inflamed sectional tensions and strengthened the anti-slavery movement.

• Election of 1860: The election of Abraham Lincoln, a Republican who opposed the expansion of slavery, triggered the secession of several Southern states. Lincoln's victory, coupled with the deepening political and social divisions, plunged the nation into civil war.

5.3 The Civil War and Reconstruction (1860-1877)

Civil War Era

• Central Issues: The Civil War was a complex conflict with multiple causes. While slavery was a central issue, it was not the only factor. Other contributing factors included economic differences between the North and the South, political power struggles, and differing visions of the future of the nation.

• Key Battles: The Civil War was marked by a series of major battles, including the Battle of Antietam, which proved to be a turning point in the war, and the Battle of Gettysburg, a decisive Union victory that marked the Confederacy's last major offensive.

• Emancipation Proclamation: President Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation declared all slaves in Confederate territory to be free. While it did not immediately free all enslaved people, it transformed the war into a moral crusade against slavery and bolstered Union morale.

• Economic Impacts: The Civil War had a profound impact on the economies of both the North and the South. The North's industrial base and strong transportation infrastructure gave it a significant economic advantage. The South, however, was heavily reliant on agriculture and suffered significant economic disruption due to the war.

• Political Impacts: The Civil War dramatically expanded the power of the federal government. President Lincoln took unprecedented steps to mobilize the nation's resources and suppress dissent, including suspending habeas corpus and expanding

Reconstruction

• Lincoln's Plan: President Lincoln's plan for Reconstruction was relatively lenient, emphasizing a swift return of the Southern states to the Union. He believed that forgiveness and reconciliation were essential for healing the nation's wounds.

• Johnson's Plan: President Andrew Johnson's Reconstruction plan was more restrictive than Lincoln's, but it still faced opposition from Radical Republicans in Congress. Johnson's policies ultimately proved to be ineffective in addressing the needs of the newly freed slaves and ensuring their rights.

• Successes: Despite its limitations, Reconstruction did achieve some significant successes. It led to the passage of the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments to the Constitution, which abolished slavery, granted citizenship to African Americans, and guaranteed them the right to vote.  

• Failures: Reconstruction ultimately fell short of its goals. Despite the passage of constitutional amendments, African Americans faced widespread discrimination and violence in the South. The rise of white supremacist groups like the Ku Klux Klan terrorized Black communities and undermined efforts to achieve racial equality.

• End of Reconstruction: The Compromise of 1877, a controversial deal that resolved the disputed presidential election of 1876, effectively ended Reconstruction. In exchange for Republican candidate Rutherford B. Hayes winning the presidency, federal troops were withdrawn from the South, leaving African Americans vulnerable to violence and discrimination.

Southern Blacks During and After Reconstruction

• Sharecropping: Sharecropping, a system of agricultural labor in which farmers rented land and received a share of the crop as payment, became the dominant form of labor in the South after the Civil War. While it offered some economic opportunities for freed slaves, it often trapped them in a cycle of debt and poverty.

• Limited Progress: Despite the gains made during Reconstruction, African Americans continued to face significant challenges in the decades that followed. Jim Crow laws and Black Codes, which enforced racial segregation and discrimination, were enacted throughout the South, limiting the opportunities and freedoms of African Americans.

Key Vocabulary

• Freedman's Bureau: A federal agency established to aid newly freed slaves during Reconstruction.

• Sharecropping: A system of agricultural labor in which farmers rented land and received a share of the crop as payment.

• Hiram Revels: The first African American senator.

• Blanche K. Bruce: The second African American senator.

Robert Smalls: A former enslaved person who became a prominent political leader during Reconstruction.