History Test

Chapter 22: A Clash of Cultures

Overview of the 1920s

• Nickname: "Roaring 20s" or "Jazz Age"

• Economic Boom: Prosperity marked by 7% annual growth (1922-1927).

• Technological Advancements: Mass production of cars, trucks, tractors, airplanes, radios, movies, electrical appliances.

• Political Landscape: Progressivism declined; Harding elected in 1920 on an anti-progressive platform.

Post World War I Economy

• Industrial Growth: U.S. industrial production grew by 70% (1922-1928).

• Florida Land Boom: Attractive due to no income tax; scams prevalent; bubble burst in 1926.

• Speculation Signs: Credit-fueled growth pointed to potential economic troubles ahead.

Emergence of Consumer Culture

• Shift in Values: Traditional values of hard work challenged by consumerism.

• Marketing Innovations: Rise of advertising; "buy now, pay later" via layaway plans.

• Role of Radio: Powerful medium for advertising, particularly targeting women ("soap operas").

• Electricity Expansion: Increased from 35% of households (1920) to 68% (1930).

Mass Culture Development

• Rise of Radio: Major unifier of American culture; rapid increase in radio ownership.

• Movie Industry Growth: 20,000 theaters in 1924; introduction of "talkies" in 1927 standardized culture.

Advancement in Flight

• Wright Brothers' Contributions: 1903: First powered flight; further developments in aviation.

• Government Support: Federal investment in aeronautics post-WWI.

• Lindbergh and Earhart: Key figures in aviation advancements; Lindbergh's Atlantic flight in 1927.

Automobile Revolution

• Ford's Impact: Introduction of the Model T in 1908 made cars accessible to the working class.

• Oil Boom: New oil discoveries supported car industry growth.

• Infrastructure Expansion: Federal government invested in 10,000 miles of paved roads annually.

Spectator Sports

• Baseball's Popularity: Dominated by stars like Babe Ruth; Negro Leagues emerged.

• Football Growth: College football popularity; Red Grange's influence in professional football.

• Boxing: Jack Dempsey and Gene Tunney captured national attention.

Cultural Shifts: The Jazz Age

• F. Scott Fitzgerald: Key voice of the 1920s; jazz music fused diverse influences.

• Cultural Impact: New styles and themes explored by artists like Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington.

Women's Movement and Flappers

• Flappers' Role: Challenge traditional norms; embraced new freedoms in behavior and dress.

• Margaret Sanger’s Advocacy: Pioneer in birth control activism; established birth control clinics.

• Backlash Against Women's Rights: Despite advances, many women left the workforce in the 1920s.

Harlem Renaissance

• Great Migration: Enabled formation of vibrant black communities in the North.

• Cultural Flourishing: Harlem as a cultural hub; notable figures like Langston Hughes.

Black Nationalism and the NAACP

• Marcus Garvey's Influence: Advocated for black pride and return to Africa; controversial within the black community.

• NAACP's Roles: Founded on the Niagara Movement; focused on civil rights, particularly voting rights litigation.

Modernism and Scientific Change

• Modernism's Influence: Questioned traditional beliefs; emergence of skepticism in various fields including religion.

• Einstein's Theories: Revolutionized physics and introduced ideas of moral relativism.

Immigration Policies in the 1920s

• Immigration Acts: Legislation limiting numbers; preference for Western Europeans; increased scrutiny on Latino workers.

Notable Events and Trends

• Sacco and Vanzetti Case: Highlighted issues in the justice system regarding immigrants.

• Revival of Ku Klux Klan: Expanded in scope and influence during the 1920s; targeted various minority groups.

Fundamentalism vs. Modernism

• The Scopes Trial (1925): Highlighted conflict between religious beliefs and scientific thought, primarily around evolution.

• Prohibition Era: Reflects changing values regarding alcohol; linked to a larger moralistic agenda.

Decline of Progressivism

• Factors Leading to Decline: Loss of leadership figures; crackdown on labor unions; disillusionment with wartime policies.

Political Landscape and Leaders

• Warren G. Harding: Elected on a platform of normalcy; controversial administration marred by scandal.

• Andrew Mellon’s Policies: Tax cuts; reshaping of government's financial policies favoring industry.

• Labor's Downturn: Unions weakened, leading to increased employment issues and wage disparity.

Isolationism and Global Interactions

• Kellogg-Briand Pact: Attempted to outlaw war; represented U.S. isolationist attitudes post-WWI.

• Harding’s Administration's Scandals: Teapot Dome scandal exemplified corrupt practices during the presidency.

Calvin Coolidge to Herbert Hoover

• Coolidge’s Presidency: Emphasized business over government intervention; maintained economic policies.

• Hoover’s Challenges: Faced the onset of the Great Depression; reluctance to intervene amid economic collapse.

Chapter 23: The Great Depression and the New Deal

1. The Onset of the Great Depression

• The prosperous era of the 1920s abruptly ended in 1929 with the start of the Great Depression. By 1932, unemployment soared to one in four Americans, with over half a million losing their homes.

• The Great Depression was exacerbated by the interconnectedness of the global economy, prompting a further decline in Europe, which was just recovering from World War I.

• To address the crisis, federal authority witnessed unprecedented increases, and new economic theories were implemented in the U.S. economy.

2. Causes of the Great Depression

• Even President Hoover recognized concerns about speculation in the economy, as greed from bankers and stockbrokers created a classic bubble.

• The stock market crashed on October 10, 1929, known as “Black Tuesday,” which incited a panic leading to near total paralysis of the economy.

• This crash served as a catalyst rather than being the sole cause of the Great Depression, which was attributed to:

  1. Overproduction and underconsumption of goods.

  2. Weak labor movements and growing income inequality.

  3. Decreased agricultural prices.

  4. Poor government decisions such as the Hawley-Smoot Tariff and a contraction in the money supply.

  5. Weakness in European economies.

  6. Rampant speculation across various sectors.

• American prosperity had underpinned the global economy, but as European demand for American goods fell and war debts became unpayable, the economy collapsed.

3. General Hardships

• The early stages of the Great Depression severely impacted farmers, who contemplated strikes, leading to the 1931 “Farmer’s Holiday” known as the “Cornbelt Rebellion.”

• While a full strike didn't occur, the situation influenced many farmers towards Communist ideologies.

• Unemployment climbed to 30%, with over 12 million Americans out of work. Malnutrition became widespread, coupled with increasing homelessness, marking the first significant national crisis of this kind.

• Many men adopted the “hobo” lifestyle, traveling on railcars in hopes of finding work elsewhere. Some extreme and inhumane solutions regarding food scarcity were suggested, hinting at the desperate times America faced with more emigrants than immigrants for the first time.

4. Impacts on Marginalized Groups

• The Great Depression hindered progress women had made in the workforce during World War I, as many had to leave their jobs for unemployed men.

• Mexican Americans were scapegoated during the Depression, facing significant discrimination; even President Hoover referred to “American jobs for real Americans.”

• As a result, a mass deportation effort began, with over 350,000 Mexican-sounding individuals deported, whether legal residents or not.

5. The Dust Bowl

• Compounding the Great Depression, a severe drought affected the American Southwest, exacerbated by outdated farming methods and over-farming.

• This led to erosion and dust storms known as “black blizzards,” affecting millions of acres by 1938.

• Many affected farmers migrated to California, denigrated as “okies,” where they encountered challenging living conditions and discrimination in hiring.

6. Hoover’s Relief Efforts

• Initially, Hoover’s administration was passive, anticipating that the Depression would resolve itself as Treasury Secretary Andrew Mellon recommended.

• Attempts made by the government, like the Revenue Act of 1932, only worsened the situation by slashing budgets and increasing taxes.

• Shantytowns dubbed “Hoovervilles” emerged, reflecting frustrations towards Hoover’s lack of intervention.

• Hoover’s belief in minimal government intervention extended to a reliance on charity rather than federal help, but the wealthy were reluctant to assist the urban poor, resulting in escalated suffering.

7. Critiques of Hoover

• Hoover maintained his non-interventionist stance, remaining largely unaffected by the electoral shift in 1930 when the Democrats regained control of Congress.

• Despite maintaining some political support, Hoover’s unpopularity grew, highlighted by an anecdote involving his pleas for a nickel from Mellon, who quipped back.

• In 1932, Hoover signed the Reconstruction Finance Corporation bill to loan money to banks but lacked provisions for direct aid to citizens.

• The clash between war veterans demanding promised bonuses and Hoover’s administration culminated in violence, leading to public outrage against Hoover. At that point, Franklin D. Roosevelt remarked, “this elects me.”

8. The Election of 1932

• Hoover proved unable to navigate the challenges posed by the Great Depression, and while he secured the Republican nomination, it was clear the Democrats had the advantage.

• New York Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt was nominated on the fourth ballot. FDR accepted his nomination in person, emphasizing an imminent “new deal for the American people.”

• His promise of an active governmental role contrasted starkly with Hoover’s approach, culminating in FDR’s decisive victory in the 1932 election, with a significant shift in electoral politics.

9. Background: FDR

• FDR hailed from the prominent Hyde Park Roosevelts and was distantly related to Teddy Roosevelt.

• After elite schooling, he married his cousin Eleanor, who was even more closely related to Teddy.

• Following a defeat as Vice-Presidential nominee in 1920, FDR contracted polio in 1921, which some argue enhanced his character and leadership.

10. FDR’s Early Actions/First 100 Days

• Upon taking office, FDR rejected advice for dictatorial powers, instead promising a fight against the Depression based on his inaugural remarks, “the only thing we have to fear is fear itself.”

• In his first 100 days, he aimed to tackle economic recovery, unemployment, the farming crisis, and reform capitalist practices with targeted strategies.

• Key actions included addressing banking issues, fostering unions, and curbing overproduction to stabilize prices through the First New Deal.

• The Emergency Banking Relief Act allowed a banking holiday and instilled confidence in the banking system through measures like the FDIC, which insured deposits.

• FDR also passed the 21st Amendment, repealing Prohibition, as it was both politically beneficial and economically necessary.

11. Programs of the New Deal

• A key focus of the New Deal was addressing unemployment through various work programs instead of direct financial aid.

• The Civilian Works Administration (CWA) initially employed millions but was dissolved due to high costs.

• More successful initiatives included the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), aimed at conservation and also providing jobs for many men.

• FDR created programs to assist homeowners and stabilize the housing market, such as the Home Owners’ Loan Corporation and Federal Housing Administration (FHA).

• The National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) established both the Public Works Administration (PWA) and the National Recovery Administration (NRA), aiming to assist low-income individuals and regulate industry practices.

• Despite some successes, the NRA was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court, though it did result in lasting reforms like the establishment of a minimum wage and limitations to child labor.

12. Eleanor Roosevelt

• Noted for her progressive influence on FDR's policies, Eleanor Roosevelt was also an active political figure in her own right.

• Her advocacy for women's and minority rights had a significant impact, even as FDR navigated complex political landscapes.

• Eleanor's achievements included being the first woman to address a national convention and holding countless press conferences, reshaping the role of the First Lady in politics.

13. Opposition to the New Deal

• As the New Deal faced challenges, FDR utilized radio to connect directly with Americans, relying on charm and political acumen to forge ahead.

• Criticism came from both sides of the political spectrum, with some leftists arguing not enough was being done while conservatives feared socialist policies.

14. New Deal and Minorities

• Economic recovery during FDR's first term averaged 9% annually, but many hardships persisted, particularly for immigrants and people of color. FDR's reluctance to confront segregation and discrimination reflected his political calculations to maintain Southern support.

• The NAACP gained traction during this time, and Eleanor pushed FDR to appoint more African Americans to government roles, leading to the formation of the Black Cabinet.

15. Literature and Movies in the Depression

• The Depression era birthed classics in literature reflecting hardship, such as Steinbeck's The Grapes of Wrath.

• Movies offered escapism through popular films, with audiences seeking relief from their struggles rather than representations of their reality.

16. Opposition from Extremists

• FDR also faced challenges from notable figures like Huey Long, Charles Townsend, and Father Coughlin, who pushed extreme measures.

• While Long aimed for sweeping social changes, many of his plans were impractical. Townsend proposed a costly pension scheme that was financially unsound. Coughlin's radical views included anti-Semitic rhetoric and unfounded claims of communist conspiracies.

17. The Second New Deal

• After facing setbacks from the Supreme Court, FDR persisted with the Second New Deal, launching transformative programs like the Works Progress Administration (WPA), which employed millions for infrastructure projects.

• The Social Security Act established a safety net for older Americans, while enhanced taxes on the wealthy aimed to support New Deal initiatives.

18. FDR's Re-election

• In the 1936 election, the Republicans nominated Al Landon, yet FDR's popularity remained strong, leading to a significant landslide victory, supported by diverse constituencies.

19. Setbacks for FDR/Court Packing Scheme

• FDR sought to expand the Supreme Court, seeking judges who would be friendly to his policies, but this attempt backfired, leading to a loss of support.

• His later years faced economic slumps, and increasing partisan conflicts suggested a decline in his influence.

• Despite the challenges, FDR's leadership during this period—informed by the events in Europe—shaped the trajectory of U.S. policies leading into World War II.