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The Nature of Art Historical Inquiry:

Art history is an academic discipline dedicated to the reconstruction of the social, cultural, and economic contexts in which an artwork was created. These pieces can reflect the time period or just the physical/mental condition of the artist. There are two types of analysis techniques that one can use to make decisions based on the visual aspects of the piece, formal and contextual analysis. Formal analysis is when someone makes assumptions based on the visual aspects of the piece. Contextual analysis is when someone makes assumptions about the piece by looking outside its range of focus and using factors such as date, time, or place. Art history provides information and insights that add background to the meaning and significance of the works of art we study. As we place these works of art in their cultural and historical context, they are connected to the long

history of events that has led up to our present culture. 

Sources, Documents, and the Work of Art Historians:

Art historians often begin their analysis with a close examination of a work of art. Direct examination of the work of art is ideal because much is lost when we look at a reproduction rather than an original object. For statues, the size and majesty of it is lost. For paintings, the authentic hues do not portray its original vibrancy. Although observing reproductions of an art piece has many flaws, art historians tend to do so because of the original pieces being damaged over time. Art historians also use many written sources in the quest for contextual information about a work of art. Art historians may also rely on interviews with artists and consumers of works of art. This is especially the case when cultures rely more on oral history than on written documents.

The Development of Art History:

Art history emerged as a distinct academic discipline in the mid-eighteenth century, with earlier writers like Pliny the Elder and Giorgio Vasari influencing its development. Pliny analyzed art in his text Natural History, while Vasari's The Lives of the Artists offered insights into the roles of artists during the Renaissance. Johann Joachim Winckelmann shifted focus to stylistic development linked to historical context in the eighteenth century. Over time, the field has evolved to emphasize the relationship between art's formal qualities and its context, while modern revisions, particularly by feminist historians, have broadened its scope to include more diverse perspectives, addressing past biases in focus on white men. Additionally, the scope of art history now includes a wider range of visual culture beyond traditional masterpieces. Moreover, the concern with great artistic geniuses and masterpieces has lessened as the full range of “visual culture,” ranging from advertisement posters to film to photography and television imagery, has come to view.

Ancient Civilizations:

• Art of the Old Stone Age: Many art pieces of ancient civilizations included basic materials for drawing such as red/yellow ochre and black charcoal to depict animals, cavemen, and human hands. These paints were also used during hunting ceremonies or other ritual behaviors. 

• Art of the Middle Stone Age: During the Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic Period) the climate warmed, and a culture developed that produced art similar in some ways to the cave paintings of the Paleolithic Period.

• Art of the New Stone Age: The art forms most often linked with the New Stone Age (Neolithic Period) are rings or rows of rough-hewn stones located in Western Europe.  Indeed, the sheer size of these works led historians to call the stones megaliths, meaning “great stones,” and the culture that created these works is often termed “megalithic.” The most common art piece using this form was Stonehenge. Located in England, it was created using rocks from that particular region. Art flourishes in organized cultures with stable urban centers supported by ruling classes. Civilizations that protect their art in inaccessible locations increase the likelihood of those works surviving for study in art history.

• Ancient Mesopotamian Art: The civilizations that arose in Mesopotamia in the valley between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers developed writing and arts in parallel with Egypt. However, it lacked the natural protection that Egypt had which made them more susceptible to invasions, which affected their history in reflecting a period of conquest and destruction. Religion was central to Sumerian life, leading to the construction of massive temples and stepped ziggurats in city centers. Around 2334 BCE, Sargon of Akkad unified Sumer, emphasizing monarchy in art, with rulers depicted in sculptures. Akkadian rule ended around 2150 BCE due to Guti invasions, but Sumer reasserted control under a Neo-Sumerian ruler. Ziggurats functioned as temples and administrative centers. Babylonia emerged around 1792 BCE with Hammurabi, who codified law (Code of Hammurabi), evidenced by a stone stele in the Louvre illustrating Hammurabi receiving inspiration from the sun-god Shamash. The Assyrians then dominated northern Mesopotamia around 900-600 BCE, renowned for relief carvings depicting significant events. Following Assyrian decline, Babylonia rose again, marked by the construction of the Hanging Gardens and the Ishtar Gate, featuring animal figures on a walled surface.

• Persian Art: The Persian Empire (c. 538 bce–330 bce) flourished in what is present-day Iran. The Persians were notable for their impressive architectural achievements, the most important of which was the palace at Persepolis, which was constructed of stone, brick, and wood and reflects the influence of Egyptian architecture.

• Ancient Egyptian Art: Ancient Egyptian civilization is dated from c. 3000 BCE to 332 BCE, when it was conquered by Alexander the Great. Notable works include the Sphinx, the pyramids at Giza, and the portrait head of Queen Nefertiti. Egyptian art often employs hierarchical scale, determining the size of figures based on their status, as seen in the Palette of King Narmer, where he is depicted larger than other figures. Art also follows a technique called fractional representation, clearly showing parts of the body. The preservation of Egyptian art is aided by favorable conditions and burial customs that included mummification and lavish furnishings. The tomb of Tutankhamun, left largely intact until 1922, contained many rich objects, including the famous gold burial mask adorned with blue glass and semiprecious stones, representing an idealized portrait of the young king.

• Nubian Art: The kingdom of Nubia was located south of Egypt and spanned a significant region of Africa. As modern historians increasingly seek to revise and broaden the scope of art history, more insights into this remarkable African civilization are being revealed. It is now recognized that there was a time in Egyptian history when Nubia held power, and the Pharaohs of that period were Nubian. Although there are currently limited collections showcasing Nubian art, this situation is likely to change as the narrative of art continues to evolve.

Greek and Roman Art:

• Cycladic, Minoan, and Mycenaean Art: The Aegean island cultures are essential precursors to Greek art. Three main cultures emerged in the Aegean Sea:

1. Cycladic Culture (3200-2000 BCE): Flourished in the Cyclades, known for its simplified, geometric nude female sculptures, decorated pottery, and marble bowls. Many aspects of this culture remain a mystery.

2. Minoan Culture: Developed on Crete, peaked in the second millennium BCE. Centered around the city of Knossos, associated with the legend of the Minotaur. The Minoans produced naturalistic art, including frescoes and pottery designs, and built impressive, unfortified palaces with a flexible architectural style.

3. Mycenaean Culture: Arising as Minoan civilization declined, centered in Mycenae on  the Greek mainland. Known for elaborate tombs preserving gold and skillful relief sculptures, indicating high levels of craftsmanship in goldsmithing.

• Ancient Greek Art: From around 660 to 475 bce, during the Archaic Period, the Greeks, influenced by the stone sculptures of Egypt and Mesopotamia, created sculptures carved in marble and limestone. Greek human art also was depicted with more striking human features than other forms. During this time period, temples were constructed featuring early Doric and Ionic column styles. Vase painting emerged as a significant art form, showcasing various styles:

1. Black-Silhouetted Figures: Some vases depicted figures in solid black. 

2. Corinthian Style: Featured figures set against floral backgrounds. 

3. Athenian-Style Vases: Utilized black figures that were more linear and larger in size. 

4. Red-Figure Vases: Characterized by red figures contrasted against a black background.

The best-known ancient Greek art is from Athens during the Classical Period. Early Classical Period temples featured sturdy Doric columns, but much of the sculpture from this time has not survived, with Roman copies providing valuable information. This sculpture was marked by solemnity, strength, and simplicity, focusing on moments before or after significant actions. Advances included moving away from the stiff frontal poses of the Archaic Period towards more complex, lifelike figures using a technique called "contrapposto" for a natural appearance. Greek sculpture set a model for subsequent Western art movements. The Middle Classical Period saw architectural advances, exemplified by the Parthenon, restored in 447 BCE. Following Athens' defeat in the Peloponnesian War, the Late Classical Period still employed Doric columns but increasingly used decorative Corinthian columns. The Hellenistic Period blended Greek styles with Eastern influences, producing notable works like the Venus de Milo and the Laocoön Group, which embody ideals of beauty.

• Etruscan Art: The art of the Etruscan civilization is seen as a transition from the ideals of Greece to the pragmatic concerns of the Romans. This civilization arose in present-day Italy and was most known for tomb decoration. Nothing remains of Etruscan buildings as these were constructed of brick and wood. However, ceramic models depict temples with tiled, gabled roofs supported by columns in the fashion of the Greeks. They specialized in bronze work. The only paintings that remain from the Etruscan culture are those found on the walls and ceilings of tombs. These were done in bright, flat colors, and they show figures playing music and dancing as part of funeral celebrations.

• Roman Art: The story of Rome centers on conquest and empire-building, with early Roman art influenced by Etruscan styles. By the 2nd century BCE, many Roman artworks were variations of Greek works, particularly in their idealized representation of rulers. Romans advanced architecture and engineering significantly, notably through the development of concrete, which allowed for the construction of large domed buildings and the use of curved arches in bridges and aqueducts. Prominent examples include the Colosseum (72–80 CE) and the Pantheon (c. 126–128 CE). Roman sculptures included colossal triumphal arches with reliefs depicting emperors and military victories, as well as tombs and sarcophagi adorned with narrative reliefs. Portrait sculptures varied from small busts to large statues, with funerary images commonly carried in processions. Public statues commemorating esteemed individuals were also created, often with an idealistic style that emphasized Roman ideals rather than naturalistic depictions. Roman art not only influenced the Middle Ages but also significantly impacted the Renaissance and subsequent art movements.

Byzantine and Medieval Art: With the fall of the Roman Empire, connections between its parts disintegrated, leading to separate warring kingdoms. However, the Empire continued in Byzantium, best known for its mosaic art, featuring small tiles, stone, or glass set into a ground material to create murals, predominantly Christian in content. Notable examples can be seen in the mosaic walls of the great churches of Ravenna, which was under Byzantine control at the time. In Byzantine architecture, the Hagia Sophia (532–537 CE) in Constantinople is a significant achievement. During the medieval period marked by civil strife, the Church preserved art as the majority of the population was illiterate, with formal education mostly limited to the nobility and clergy. Latin served as the international language, and book production was primarily carried out in monasteries, where monks meticulously copied and illustrated texts, such as the Book of Kells (late 8th or early 9th century) and the Coronation Gospels (c. 800–810). These illuminated manuscripts were valuable works of art that facilitated the exchange of artistic ideas between northern and southern Europe. Notable from the early medieval period (c. 375–1025) is the art of nomadic Germanic peoples, particularly their metalwork, characterized by abstract, decorative, and geometric designs often found in small, portable jewelry made from bronze, silver, or gold. Viking artifacts showcase their seafaring culture, with wood as their principal medium for carving artistic designs and ship sculptures. The artistic styles of the Vikings merged with those in Anglo-Saxon England and Celtic Ireland, leading to what is known as Hiberno-Saxon art. Later medieval art saw the rise of church architecture as a dominant form, focusing on Romanesque design characterized by stone vaulted buildings. These churches, often taking over a century to complete, featured heavy stone arches, massive supporting walls, and small window openings adorned with carvings. A prominent example is the Saint-Sernin in Toulouse, France (c. 1070–1120). The Gothic style, popular from the twelfth to the sixteenth century, is primarily characterized by pointed arches and ribbed vaults. Flying buttresses allowed for larger windows, often filled with stained glass, and higher ceilings. A prime example is Chartres Cathedral in France, featuring tall arches and vibrant stained glass that direct the gaze upward.

The Renaissance and Baroque:

• The Renaissance in Southern Europe: As art forms were transitioning, many artists created their pieces with a mix of both Gothic and Renaissance styles. An artist associated with this type of transitional art style was Giotte di Bondone, who was best known for his art pieces with a simple perspective by overlapping and modeling his figures which created the illusion of a stage. Giotto’s works were different from many Gothic works as he gave his figures powerful gestures and emotional expressions. To our eyes, his paintings may not look entirely naturalistic, but his artistic innovations had quite an impact on viewers at the time, who were accustomed to the flat, unexpressive, and stylized figures of the Gothic style. Like the art of Ancient Greece, Renaissance art continues to have an impact on us today. At the time, paper money was invented, which led to the increase of wealth and more people wanting to sponsor and become a patron for the arts. This helped motivate artists more as examples of Greek and Roman art were easily accessible to the public. During this time, individual arts changed for the better. In the past, artists held a low rank in the social hierarchy, being known as artisans since they did work with their hands, however during this time the role of artists in society changed, as great artists came to be recognized as intellectual figures. Consequently, artists were accorded a special place in society. Famous artists include: Lorenzo Ghiberti(created Gates of Paradise), Filippo Brunelleschi(developed linear and aerial perspective), Donatello(founder of modern sculpture and creator of the bronze statue, David), Botticelli(created The Birth of Venus), Leonardo da Vinci(known as the “Renaissance Man” and created the Mona Lisa/ the painting technique sfumato), Michelangelo di Buonarotti(created his version of David, Moses, The Dying Slave, and The Bound Slave), Raphael Sanzio(created School of Athens and Sistine Madonna), Giorgione(created The Tempest), Titian Vecelli(known for his portraits of patrons), Tintoretto(painted with an artistic style called Mannerism). The Reformation was a pivotal event in sixteenth-century art, as Protestants criticized the opulence and corruption of the Catholic Church, leading to a shift away from the richly decorated churches and religious imagery of the Renaissance. In response, the Church initiated a Counter-Reformation that emphasized even more lavish decoration and emotionally dramatic art. A key figure associated with this movement is El Greco (Dominikos Theotokopoulos), who was influenced by Tintoretto and worked in Titian's workshop. In 1576, he moved to Toledo, Spain, and became one of the most notable Mannerist painters, known for his dramatic use of elongated figures that expressed the religious fervor of the time. El Greco's and Tintoretto's works serve as transitional pieces between the Renaissance and the Baroque period.

• The Renaissance in Northern Europe: During the 15th century, northern European artworks were smaller and featured greater realistic detail than those from southern Europe, primarily due to the use of oil paints. While Italy experienced the Renaissance, northern art retained a Gothic style, with less influence from classical antiquity due to cultural differences. However, by the 16th century, northern artists began to show greater awareness of the Italian Renaissance, influenced by travel, engraving copies of Italian works, and trade connections. Notable northern Renaissance artists include Matthias Grünewald and Albrecht Dürer. Grünewald, known for religious scenes, created the Isenheim Altarpiece, his greatest masterpiece. Dürer, the most famous artist of Reformation Germany, combined northern detail with Italian Renaissance ideas, studying in Italy and applying his knowledge back home. He published many influential works, including woodcuts and engravings like The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse. Hans Holbein the Younger (1497–1543) is regarded as one of the greatest Renaissance portraitists. Although he was born in Germany, he is most renowned for his work in England, where he served as court painter to King Henry VIII. Holbein’s portrait of Henry VIII exemplifies his skill in conveying intricate details as well as the psychological depth of his subjects. His artistic style set the standard for English painting through the nineteenth century.

• Baroque Art: The term "Baroque" refers to artworks produced from the late sixteenth century through the mid-eighteenth century. Baroque art is distinguished from Renaissance art by its dynamic movement and energy. During the Baroque era, Europe faced conflicts between empires rather than city wars as in the Renaissance. The Church sought to maintain its power, particularly in Spain and Italy, and new orders like the Jesuits were established for conversion efforts. Baroque art heavily appealed to emotions, influenced by the Counter-Reformation, aiming for dramatic appeals to faith. The period was marked by powerful sovereigns like Empress Maria Theresa, Peter the Great, Catherine the Great, and King Louis XIV, who ruled with a belief in divine right. While the ruling class accumulated wealth and power, ordinary people's lives were challenging, leading to protests inspired by Enlightenment thinkers like Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Paradoxically, it was the patronage of this wealthy class that fostered the creation of significant artworks during this time. The Baroque period's art shifted away from the classic simplicity of the Renaissance, emphasizing richness in color and ornamentation that heightened energy and emotion. Baroque works are characterized by dynamic imagery and dramatic presentation. Artists utilized chiaroscuro for theatrical lighting, notably exemplified by Italian painter Caravaggio (1571–1610), whose dramatic light and dark contrasts influenced many and led to the term "caravaggesque". Caravaggio's realistic portrayals of religious figures, depicting them in humble attire instead of classical garb, occasionally led to rejection by patrons. In recent art history revisions, Artemisia Gentileschi (1593?–1652?) has been recognized as a significant Baroque artist, known for her adaptation of Caravaggio’s techniques and her focus on self-portraits and Old Testament women. The most important Baroque artist was Gianlorenzo Bernini, who was a child prodigy and created pieces in forms of sculpture, painting, drafting, and as a designer in theater. His most important masterpiece was the Ecstasy of Saint Teresa. The Baroque style significantly influenced art beyond Italy. In Flanders, Peter Paul Rubens established a vibrant workshop known for energetic and colorful works, which served as models for many artists. Dutch artist Rembrandt van Rijn created renowned Baroque pieces, including his best-known work, The Night Watch (1642). Rembrandt's innovative grouping of subjects diverged from tradition, though personal challenges led to his career decline, ultimately resulting in poverty. His later self-portraits are celebrated for their deep exploration of the sitter's inner life. In France, the Baroque period flourished under Louis XIV, whose reign symbolized the height of French culture. He constructed the extravagant Palace of Versailles starting in 1669, which covered about two thousand acres and included grand chateaux, gardens, stables, a greenhouse, and elaborate fountains. Louis XIV's opulence and power set a standard for other monarchs to follow, solidifying his reputation as the "sun king." Louis XIV's court established the Salon, an annual art exhibition that set enduring rules for judging art. He also founded the Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture, which imposed aesthetic standards. In Spain, King Philip IV emulated this model, with court painter Diego Velázquez influencing later artists, including Impressionists, through his technique of using patches of color instead of preliminary drawings.

Rococo, Neoclassicism, and Romanticism: While the Rococo style is seen as an extension of the Baroque period, it varies in form and content. The Baroque aimed to arouse grand emotions while Rococo focused on light-hearted decoration using gold/pastel colors. Three artists that excelled in this form were Jean-Antoine Watteau, François Boucher, and Jean-

Honoré Fragonard. The Revolution of 1789 in France ushered in an era of change throughout Europe. In an attempt to hearken back to the democratic ideals of the ancient world, the art style Neoclassicism was created, reviving elements of classical Greece and Rome. This was created leading up to the Revolution and was also influenced by Enlightenment philosophy. A style called Romanticism was also created, which hearkened back to the emotional emphasis of the Baroque and also maintained the same characteristics. Neoclassical art focused on line, order, and cool detachment, while Romantic painting emphasized imagination and emotional, dreamlike qualities, prioritizing feeling over reason. Romantic works often included exotic and melodramatic elements, frequently depicting awe-inspiring natural wonders. Delacroix exemplified the Romantic movement with themes of exoticism, foreign settings, animal violence, and historical subjects. Théodore Gericault and William Blake were also key Romanticism artists. 

Realism and Impressionism: In most ways, Realism was a reaction to Neoclassicism and Romanticism. This realist style originated from the desire to show all aspects and characteristics of a situation, including the negative ones. It was also obligated to show the lives of ordinary people as subjects that were as important as the historical and religious themes that dominated the art exhibitions of the day. One artist that represented this was Gustave Courbet who, through his work called The Stonebreakers, outraged conventional audiences. This piece also sparked revolutions across Europe due to its subtle political implications. Realism can also be seen in the works of Honoré Daumier (1808–79) and Jean François Millet (1814–75). Impressionism emerged from dissatisfaction with the strict rules of the annual Salons recognizing selected artists. Édouard Manet (1832–83) is often considered the first Impressionist, despite not identifying as one. 

Manet's painting, Luncheon on the Grass (1863), shown in the Salon des Refusés, sparked scandal due to its unconventional depiction of a nude woman with clothed men, defying norms of classical nudes. While Manet submitted works to the Salon, other artists sought to establish Impressionism as a new style, inspired by the rigid standards of the Académie des Beaux-Arts. Claude Monet's piece, Impression, Sunrise (1872), named the movement after critics ridiculed it as just an 'impression.' Monet encouraged outdoor painting, facilitated by advances in paint and brush technology, allowing artists to capture changing light with quick strokes. Scientific studies of vision and color also influenced their work.

Manet's use of bright, contrasting colors influenced many artists. His painting "Le Déjeuner sur L'herbe" contributed to the understanding that shadows reflect the complementary colors of the objects casting them. Other notable Impressionists include Camille Pissarro (1830–1903) and Alfred Sisley (1839–99).

Post-Impressionism and Other Late Nineteenth-Century Developments:

The artists who followed impressionism were inspired by elements from the previous time period and took their own paths in different ways. The most influential of artists in this period of time were Paul Cézanne, who redefined art in terms of form, and Georges Seurat, who created optical mixing. As Seurat gained attention and Cézanne established his painting rules, Vincent van Gogh (1853–90) emerged as a significant artist. He utilized theories of contrasting color and direct paint application to capture the bright light of southern France. His vigorous brushwork and dynamic forms aimed to evoke intense emotional responses. Van Gogh believed that colors should not merely mimic nature but be intensified to reflect inner human emotions. This concept is illustrated in his painting Night Café (1888), where the intense yellows, greens, and reds depict the space he viewed as a place of vice, showcasing his influential approach to color. The search for intense light and clear color also marks the work of Paul Gauguin. The changing art world was influenced by several factors. The invention of the camera raised questions about the need for realistic representation in art, while chemically based paints and the paint tube enabled Impressionists to paint outdoors efficiently for the first time. Additionally, global exploration brought back diverse objects that greatly impacted Impressionist artists, who found inspiration in African masks and Japanese prints. Edgar Degas exemplified these influences by merging the snapshot style of photography with a Japanese perspective. In England, a group of artists dissatisfied with the effects of the Industrial Revolution formed the Pre-Raphaelites, who sought to return to the simplicity of pre-Renaissance art. They created works that often blended moralistic, romantic, and archaic elements, emphasizing nature. This style laid the groundwork for Art Nouveau, characterized by floral and organic designs in flowing lines, which became popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

The Emergence of Modernism: As the twentieth century came in, artists were continually striving to discover new ways to present their ideology of the world. Furthering the attempts the Post-Impressionists had made to extend the boundaries of color, a group of artists led by Henri Matisse (1869–

1954) used colors so intense that they violated the beliefs and sensibilities of critics and the general public. Having van Gogh as their muse, their wild use of arbitrary color earned them the name of fauves or “wild beasts”. Natural form was to be attacked with equal fervor, as can be seen in developments in Paris around 1908. Pablo Picasso (1881–1973), in close collaboration with

Georges Braque (1882–1963), was at work developing a whole new system of art. Picasso and Braque broke down and analyzed form in new ways in the style that came to be known as Cubism. This art style was also influenced by African art, bringing their piece closer to the idea of nature. These works reacted against the naturalistic/sentimental nature of the late 19th and 20th century as they favored abstract forms over lifelike figures. In Germany, Expressionism emerged as an art movement focused on emotional responses, spearheaded by artists like Ernst Ludwig Kirchner and Emil Nolde, who formed the group Die Brücke. They fused the bright colors of the Fauvists with the intense feelings of Edvard Munch. Another group, Der Blaue Reiter, led by Vasily Kandinsky, advanced this movement towards total abstraction, beginning around 1913. Pioneers of this abstraction also included Kazimir Malevich and Piet Mondrian, known for his De Stijl canvases characterized by flat fields of primary color, which have become iconic in modern art. The following events mark the beginning of the spread of modern art in the United States. The Armory Show was the first major showing of modern art in the U.S. and the works shown have a profound and lasting effect on American art. During the 1920s, the Harlem Renaissance emerged as a pivotal movement in African-American creativity, centered in Harlem and fueled by jazz music. Despite its brief duration of just a decade, it inspired many artists, such as Jacob Lawrence and Romare Bearden, who would influence future generations. Concurrently, the Dada movement arose in the aftermath of World War I among disillusioned intellectuals in Zurich, seeking to challenge established art norms and societal values. Dada artists, like Marcel Duchamp, criticized accepted values through provocative works, such as his mustachioed Mona Lisa (LHOOQ, 1919) and a porcelain urinal (Fountain, 1917). He created a new category of artworks referred to as ready-mades. Through these works of art, Duchamp challenged traditional ideas about the way the artist functions. The Surrealist movement, influenced by Sigmund Freud's theories, sought to depict the inner workings of the mind in art. Notable Surrealist artists include Salvador Dalí, René Magritte, and Joan Miró. The Bauhaus, a pivotal design school in Germany between the first and second world wars, set influential standards for architecture and design. It aimed to reconcile industrial mass production with aesthetic form, advocating that form should follow function and remain true to materials. The curriculum developed at the Bauhaus continues to shape contemporary art education. After its closure by the Nazis in 1933, many faculty members, including Josef Albers, emigrated to the U.S. and continued their teaching. The legacy of the Bauhaus is evident today in streamlined furnishings and architecture.

Abstraction: During World War II, art movements halted, with many artists serving in the military and creating propaganda. After the war, New York emerged as the new center of the international art world, overshadowing traditional hubs in Europe. The 1950s New York art scene was influenced by critics like Harold Rosenberg and Clement Greenberg, who championed abstraction. Abstract Expressionists, guided by Kandinsky's notion of art as freed from pictorial limits, emphasized emotional expression through bold colors and brushstrokes. Key figures included Jackson Pollock, who innovated with dripping techniques. This movement was characterized by two styles: Action Painting and Color Field paintings, with artists like Mark Rothko and Josef Albers. In response, some artists returned to naturalism, like Jasper Johns and Robert Rauschenberg, whose use of everyday objects paved the way for the emergence of Pop Art.

Pop Art, Minimalism, and Photo Realism: In the 1960s, Pop Art emerged, challenging traditional norms by incorporating images from mass culture. Key figures included Andy Warhol, known for his silkscreen art of soup cans and movie stars, and Roy Lichtenstein, who enlarged comic book imagery. Minimalism focused on simplification and monochromatic palettes, with artists like Frank Stella leading in non-objective painting. Sculptors like David Smith and Dan Flavin contributed to abstract minimalist works. A movement towards Photo Realism arose, characterized by hyper-realistic depictions, led by artists such as Chuck Close and Duane Hanson, contrasting the Renaissance technique of sfumato.

Earthworks, Installations, and Performance: Since the 1970s, contemporary art has expanded beyond traditional gallery and museum spaces, with artists creating works in new venues, often outdoors, thereby challenging conventional ideas of art. Artists like Christo and Jeanne-Claude pioneered Earthworks, wrapping monuments and altering landscapes, emphasizing the importance of the process in art creation. Performance art has also gained prominence, merging art and theater, creating transient events that invite audience participation, as seen in the work of the Guerrilla Girls, who address gender inequality in the art world. Postmodernism arose in response to modernist styles, reintroducing traditional elements and questioning societal norms. Architect Philip Johnson's idea that art can serve a decorative function, exemplified by the AT&T Building, represents this shift. Today, art is produced in various forms globally, with the distinction between Western and nonwestern art becoming less meaningful in an increasingly interconnected world.

Asian Art:

• Chinese Art: Civilization and art in China date back thousands of years, with archaeological finds rivaling those in Mesopotamia and Egypt. The Great Wall is a notable example of ancient Chinese art, originally built for utility but now recognized for its artistic merit. Dynasties left elaborate tombs filled with treasures, such as the life-sized terracotta army of the first emperor, Qin, demonstrating remarkable technical ability. The introduction of Buddhism significantly influenced Chinese art, especially during the Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE), considered China's Golden Age, known for exceptional ceramic sculptures. Traditional Chinese art values contemplative ink drawings, while the communist revolution in 1949 politicized art, which has gradually become less so since the late 1970s.

• Indian Art: India is a highly diverse nation with over 1,600 languages and dialects and a wealth of religious and cultural traditions. Its artistic practices are among the oldest globally, with significant influences from Buddhism and Greek art in classical representations of Buddha. India's ruins match those of ancient civilizations like Egypt and Mesoamerica, and its sculptures exhibit a sensuous style that has influenced art for centuries. Hinduism, with its multitude of deities, significantly shapes Indian art, resulting in vibrant and dynamic styles, particularly evident in striking depictions of gods like Shiva.

• Japanese Art: The island kingdom of Japan, though small in size, has significantly influenced the international art world. Historically, Japan was largely closed to the West, which allowed its art to remain traditional and consistent. Similar to China, Japan's history involves various dynasties that contributed distinct styles. Buddhism, imported to Japan, became central to traditional arts. Even as Japan opened up to Western culture, its artistic traditions persisted. During the rise of the Impressionist movement in Europe, a group of Japanese artists studied in France and briefly embraced Western techniques, such as linear perspective and Impressionist color and subjects. However, they ultimately rejected these ideas, returning to traditional Japanese techniques that favored isometric perspective and flat colors. While Japanese artists excelled in various art forms, they are predominantly recognized in the West for their printmaking, which profoundly influenced Western art, inspiring French artists to imitate the flat colors and overhead viewpoints found in Japanese prints during the late nineteenth century.

African and Oceanic Art: African art traditions have rich histories, often divided into northern Africa, influenced by relationships with the Mediterranean, and sub-Saharan Africa, which has its own distinct heritage. Early civilizations, like the Nok in Nigeria, produced remarkable terracotta sculptures, while the Benin Kingdom created significant bronze artworks associated with royal power. Raids and colonization led to the destruction and loss of many artifacts, with preserved pieces often lacking contextual information. Traditional African arts often challenge Western notions of art's purpose, emphasizing functionality. Similar challenges are seen in Oceania, where fragile materials have hindered preservation. The Asmat of Melanesia, known for combat-related arts, also faces preservation issues. Today, there’s a resurgence of cultural expression among Indigenous groups like the Maori, highlighting art's role in reinforcing identity.

Islamic Art: Islam is a major global religion that originated in the Arabian Peninsula with the teachings of the prophet Muhammad (c. 570–632). The revelations of Muhammad are recorded in the Koran, which is central to Islamic practice and is often beautifully presented in art. Islamic art tends to be non-figurative, featuring abstract decorations or calligraphy, especially in sacred architecture. One of the oldest examples of Islamic architecture is the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem (687–692), which signifies Islam's presence in a city sacred to Jews and Christians. The mosque, built with a qibla wall facing Mecca, serves as a communal prayer space and is found in various architectural styles worldwide.

The Americas: Art historians have traditionally viewed North and South American artifacts as mere craftsmanship, resulting in their storage mainly in archaeological museums. However, renewed scholarly interest has enhanced the understanding and appreciation of these artworks, which are increasingly finding a place in art museums. Notable civilizations such as the Olmec, Toltec, Maya, Inca, and Aztec created impressive structures like the Pyramid of the Sun in Mexico. In addition to architecture, their legacy includes intricate carvings, clay and stone statues, textiles, and jewelry. Despite evidence of early humans in North America dating back nearly 12,000 years, most artifacts date from the last two thousand years. Notably, the Southwest Native Americans showcased exceptional architectural skills in their pueblo complexes, featuring numerous multi-story rooms.

Formal Qualities of Art

• Line: The most basic of art elements and the foundation of any art piece or sketch. Horizontal and vertical lines create a stable and static feeling. Horizontal lines suggest a feeling of peace and tranquility, while vertical lines cause the eye to move upward(which is demonstrated in the construction of medieval churches).

• Shape and Form: These art elements are closely related to one another. Shape defines the two-dimensional area of an object and form defines the three-dimensional area, having length, width, and depth. Shapes and forms can either be geometric, to represent order and stability, or organic, which express movement and rhythm. Space is also an element. Positive space is formed due to the space that the shapes and forms of the piece occupy. Negative space is a result of the open space that surrounds the figures. Two primary types of sculpture are freestanding and relief. 

• Perspective: The creation of perspective or the illusion of depth is another important use of space in two-dimensional artworks. The creation of perspective or the illusion of depth is crucial in two-dimensional art. Artists use various techniques, such as shading and highlighting, to replicate the effect of light and give objects a sense of volume. Placing objects lower on the picture plane makes them seem closer, while higher placement creates the illusion of distance. Manipulating object size is another way to indicate perspective, with larger objects appearing nearer. Overlapping objects can also suggest depth, as can adding detail to nearer objects.

• Color: Color surrounds us wherever we go and is a compelling element in art. Hue is simply the name of the color. There are three primary colors—red, blue, and yellow—from which all other colors are produced. Secondary colors are formed from the mixture of two primary colors. The organization of these colors into a visual scheme was called the color wheel. The term “value” is used when discussing the lightness or darkness of a color. Intensity refers to the brightness or purity of a color. The unmixed primary colors, being pure in color, are generally considered to be the most intense colors. Warm colors seem to advance toward the viewer while cool colors appear to recede. The piece will become more appealing if a spectrum of these colors are used. Color can be categorized into local, optical, or arbitrary types. Local color represents the "true" color of an object as seen in normal daylight, unaffected by distance or reflections; for example, a grassy field appears green regardless of how it might look from afar. Optical color pertains to how lighting conditions, such as moonlight or candlelight, alter the perception of color. Arbitrary color, increasingly used by artists in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, is chosen for its emotional or aesthetic significance rather than its direct representation of an object.

• Texture: Texture refers to how things feel or how we think they would feel if touched. Artists who work in three-dimensional media exploit the textural qualities of their chosen material whether it is stone, wood, metal, or some other substance. Artists who work in two-dimensional media create visual texture—an illusion of a textured surface—in their artwork.

• Composition: Composition is the organization of elements of art in artworks, whether two- or three-dimensional. In paintings, it concerns the arrangement on the picture plane, while in architecture, it refers to the spatial organization. Rhythm involves creating movement or pattern through the repetition of elements like line, shape, color, and texture, guiding the viewer's eye across the composition. Motifs are single elements that contribute to patterns formed by repeated elements in art. Balance is the equal distribution of visual weight. Symmetrical balance occurs with equal elements on both sides of an axis, while asymmetrical balance organizes unlike objects to maintain visual balance. Contrast can create focal points in artwork, directing attention to significant areas. Proportion concerns the size relationships within a composition, relative to human scale, influencing how viewers perceive the artwork. Scale refers to overall dimensions and the size of elements in the artwork, which can attract interest and convey meaning. Historically, proportions in art, especially regarding the human figure, were defined around 2,500 years ago in ancient Greece, establishing guidelines still referenced today. Artists often manipulate proportions to reflect beauty standards or for expressive effects. Understanding art composition principles requires analyzing various artworks to see how artists convey meaning through thoughtful artistic choices.

Processes and Techniques

• Drawing: Drawing is the most basic art process, utilizing tools like pencils, pens, and charcoal on various surfaces, primarily paper. It emphasizes line, with quality variations depending on the tool used. Techniques such as hatching, cross hatching, and stippling are employed for shading. Color can be added using pastels or colored pencils, with pastels being particularly popular in portraiture.

• Printmaking: Printmaking is a mechanical process allowing the production of multiple artworks, including relief prints, intaglio prints, lithographs, and screen prints. Each process involves a printing plate (matrix) where ink is applied to create images on paper. Relieves and intaglio methods differ in how the image is produced, using carving or incising respectively. Screen printing often appears in T-shirt design, while printmaking methods have historical significance in book and newspaper illustrations.

• Painting: Painting incorporates various media and techniques, primarily relying on pigments, binders, and solvents. Fresco, oil, tempera, gouache, watercolor, and acrylic are common painting methods, each with distinct characteristics, advantages, and limitations.

• Photography: Photography, emerging in the mid-nineteenth century, transformed art, prompting traditional painters to adapt and evolve their styles. While initially less regarded, photography is now recognized as a legitimate art form.

• Sculpture: Sculpture involves carving, modeling, casting, and construction methods, with freestanding and relief sculptures being primary forms. Environmental art and mixed media combine multiple techniques and found materials, providing new avenues for expression. Performance art engages artists and viewers in ephemeral experiences, challenging conventional definitions of art.

• Mixed Media: Mixed media refers to artworks that utilize multiple art media and found materials like fabric, rope, or toys, and can be either two- or three-dimensional. Collage is a subset of mixed media, combining various materials such as photographs and ticket stubs. Notable artists like Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque popularized this medium in high art around 1912, while Robert Rauschenberg is known for his mixed media pieces that merge silkscreen images and paint. Artists like Joseph Cornell used assemblage techniques with found objects to create symbolic works. Additionally, traditional cultures use mixed media in masks and ceremonial costumes

• Performance: Performance art involves the artist engaging in live actions, often with viewer interaction. It lacks permanence and is mostly documented through videos or photographs. This art form emphasizes unique experiences and stands as a critique against the commercialization of art, encouraging artists to explore innovative ideas and challenge perceptions of art.

This piece addresses themes of land use, ownership, and cultural identity. It also illustrates an act of civil disobedience. Utilizes multimedia installations, integrating both visual art with political commentary.

Explores indigenous histories and contemporary issues, highlighting resilience and cultural narratives. Merges traditional painting with modern storytelling techniques, creating immersive experiences.

Reflects on indigenous rights and environmental stewardship. Combines traditional craftsmanship with contemporary art practices

Raises awareness about environmental issues affecting indigenous lands and communities. Uses photography and installation art to document and criticize ecological harm.

A powerful statement on land use, waste management, and sustainability. Engages land art and ecological concepts in an urban setting.

Comments on environmental degradation and the impact of industrialization. Uses found objects and assemblage techniques to create provocative installations.

Highlights ecological interconnections and the sacredness of migration routes. Uses photography to capture the essence of the Arctic landscape and its wildlife.

Intersects art with social commentary on waste and the lives of garbage pickers. Innovative use of garbage in creating art, challenging traditional ideas of fine art.

Addresses ecological sustainability and the relationship between humans and nature. Uses conceptual art to raise awareness of environmental issues.

Examines industrial processes and environmental impact on public resources. Integrates art and science to engage viewers in ecological discourse.

Merges art and landscape, focusing on the relationship between people and the natural world. Utilizes large-scale environmental sculpture reflecting solar changes.

Investigates biodiversity and conservation through an artistic lens. Combination of scientific documentation with artistic interpretation.

Challenges notions of art in relationship to nature and ecological systems. Integrates elements of the natural world, live installations, and interactive experiences.

Emphasizes joy, color, and representation of African American womanhood. Embraces abstract expressionism with innovative color use and compositional technique.

Explores themes of identity, female experience, and nature through performance art. Uses body imprinting in nature, bridging permanence and impermanence.

Addresses indigenous experiences and trauma within contemporary settings. Employs performance art as a powerful storytelling medium to convey emotion and narrative.

Tackles issues of displacement, environment, and social justice.Utilizes mixed media to convey complex narratives about human experiences with nature.

Captures the intimate realities of community life affected by socio-economic issues. Merges photography with family storytelling to highlight local impact on identity and resilience.