AP US History Notes: Period 4 (1800-1848)

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Six Things to Know about Period 4:

1. The United States continued to develop its own democratic ideals, sparking debates about role of federal government, and leading to the formation of various political parties.
2. The U.S. Supreme Court established the principle that federal laws take precedence over state laws. Through Marbury v. Madison (1803), the Court also established the principle of judicial review, which allowed courts to check the power of the legislature and executive branches of government, further solidifying a “separation of powers.”
3. America developed a national culture, especially after the War of 1812, and various religious and social reform groups emerged. The temperance movement sought to ban alcohol. The abolition movement worked to end slavery and to assist African Americans. The women’s rights movement’s efforts culminated in the Seneca Falls Convention.
4. America underwent an economic and technological revolution. Major developments included the cotton gin, the steam engine, the factory system, and the expansion of railroads and canals. America moved away from a small subsistence-based economy and into an era of increasing industrialization, which impacted societal and family structures.
5. Expanding westward after the Louisiana Purchase, the United States sought to expand its borders and to be seen as a major player in foreign trade. The Monroe Doctrine and military actions against American Indian tribes demonstrated the desire for more control in North America.
6. As new states joined the United States, the debate over slavery raged on. In an attempt to appease both the North and South, Henry Clay crafted the Missouri Compromise, resolving some tension for the next three decades.

Key Topics--Period 4 (1800-1848 C.E.)

Remember that the AP US History exam tests you on the depth of your knowledge, not just your ability to recall facts. While we have provided brief definitions here, you will need to know these terms in even more depth for the AP US History exam, including how terms connect to broader historical themes and understandings.

The Election of Thomas Jefferson

• Federalists: Supported an orderly, efficient central government that could protect their economic status; these well-organized leaders often wielded significant political control. Members included George Washington, Benjamin Franklin, and Alexander Hamilton. An early political party. See: Anti-Federalists, Alien and Sedition Acts.
• Thomas Jefferson: Third President. Served 1801–1809. Authored the Declaration of the Independence. He led the U.S. through the Tripolitanian War and avoided involvement in the Napoleonic Wars. In some cases, Jefferson adhered to the letter of the Constitution, while at other times (such as with the Louisiana Purchase) he adopted a loose interpretation. For example, he kept many of the hallmarks of the Federalist Era intact (such as Hamilton’s economic system), but he had the citizenship requirement of the Alien Act reduced to five years and abolished the excise tax.
• Electoral College: A name for the group of electors that decides who the president and vice-president will be. Whichever candidate receives the majority of electoral votes wins. If no candidate receives a majority, the presidential election is thrown to the House. The Senate elects the vice president. It is possible to win the electoral college but lose the popular vote; this scenario has happened on five occasions: 1824, 1876, 1888, 2000, and 2016. The Electoral College was modified by the Twelfth Amendment.
• Democratic-Republicans: One of the first political parties in the United States. They opposed the Federalist Party. They supported states’ rights and favored agrarianism. Members included Thomas Jefferson, James Monroe, and Aaron Burr. Following the party’s fragmentation during the Era of Good Feelings, a faction led by Andrew Jackson became dominant. That faction formed the Democratic Party, which still exists. See: Anti-Federalist.
• Aaron Burr: Third Vice President (1801–1805). Served during Thomas Jefferson’s first term. Famously killed Alexander Hamilton in an 1804 duel. Tried but acquitted on charges of treason in 1807 over allegations he conspired with foreign agents to overthrow Spanish rule in what became the American Southwest, in order to establish a new nation with himself as ruler.
• Alexander Hamilton: Founding Father and co-author of the Federalist Papers. Split the Federalist ticket in the Election of 1800, weakening then-President John Adams enough to allow Thomas Jefferson to win. In an 1804 duel, he was shot and killed by Vice President Aaron Burr.
• Louisiana Territory: In 1803, Jefferson offered France $10 million for New Orleans and a strip of land that extended to Florida. However, Napoleon had abandoned his dream of an American empire because of his failure to stop a slave uprising in Haiti; he instead prioritized raising revenue to fund his conquest of Europe. He offered the entire Louisiana Territory, which stretched from the Gulf of Mexico to the Hudson Bay, and from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains, for the bargain price of $15 million. Jefferson, while torn over the fact that the Constitution did not specifically provide for the president to negotiate for and purchase land from a foreign power, reluctantly accepted the proposal in order to safeguard national security.
• Pinckney’s Treaty: The United States had enjoyed the right of deposit at the Port of New Orleans under this 1795 treaty with Spain, but in 1798 the Spanish revoked the treaty.
• Napoleon Bonaparte: A famous French military and political leader, both during the French Revolution and the ensuing Napoleonic Wars. He led France as Emperor Napoleon I from 1804 until 1814. His various military conquests led to the spread of legal reform, republicanism, nationalism, and other ideas of the French Revolution. In American history, he is notable for his involvement in the Louisiana Purchase, as he sold the Louisiana Territory to the United States.
• James Monroe: Fifth President. Served 1817–1825. A Virginian and Democratic-Republican, he helped secure the Louisiana Purchase. During the War of 1812, he served as both Secretary of State (1811–1817) and Secretary of War (1814–1815). The Era of Good Feelings largely overlaps with his presidency. He dealt with the Panic of 1819 and well as the Missouri Compromise. In 1823, he issued the Monroe Doctrine, a long-lasting foreign policy of the United States.
• Robert Livingston: Along with James Monroe, he was dispatched to France in 1803 to offer $10 million for New Orleans and a strip of land that extended to Florida. If the negotiations failed, Monroe and Livingston were to travel directly to London to ask for a transatlantic alliance between the United States and Britain. Much to the surprise of both men, the French ministers were offering not only the land Jefferson sought but the entire Louisiana Territory.
• Meriwether Lewis: One half of the famed Lewis and Clark team who explored and charted the Louisiana Purchase. See: William Clark.
• William Clark: One half of the famed Lewis and Clark team who explored and charted the Louisiana Purchase. See: Meriwether Lewis.

The Marshall Court

• Judiciary Act of 1801: In a last-minute piece of legislation before the Congress was to be turned over to the majority Democratic-Republicans, the Federalists created 16 new judgeships. President John Adams worked through the nights of his last days in office, appointing so-called “midnight judges” who would serve on the bench during Jefferson’s administration. Incensed by the packing of Federalists into lifetime judicial appointments, Jefferson sought to keep these men from taking the bench. This led to the Marbury v. Madison ruling.
• Midnight judges: Judges appointed at the very end of the Adams administration under the Judiciary Act of 1801. So-called because they were an attempt to pack the judicial branch with Federalist judges just before the Democratic-Republicans took power.
• James Madison: Fourth President. Served 1809–1817. A Virginian and Democratic-Republican, he served as Jefferson’s Secretary of State (1801–1809) and help negotiate the Louisiana Purchase. He led the U.S. through the War of 1812. Due to the war’s difficulties, he shifted toward supporting a stronger centralized state, a re-chartered national bank, and various internal improvements. See: American System, Second Bank of the United States.
• William Marbury: One of the “midnight judges” appointed by John Adams. Jefferson tried to stop his appointment. So, Marburg sued under the Judiciary Act of 1789, which granted the Supreme Court the authority to enforce judicial commissions. His case resulted in the landmark Marbury v. Madison decision.
• Judiciary Act of 1789: Established the structure of the Judiciary Branch, with the Supreme Court consisting of one presiding chief justice and five associate justices. It also provided for the establishment of 13 district courts and three circuit courts of appeal. See: Marbury v. Madison.
• Supreme Court: The highest court in the judicial branch. In the present day, there are nine justices seated at it, with one of the nine serving as Chief Justice, although this number fluctuated in the early years of the United States. The president nominates a justice and the Senate votes on that nomination. If confirmed, the justice has a lifetime appointment, serving until their death or retirement. See: Judiciary Act of 1789, Marbury v. Madison
• John Marshall: Founding Father. The fourth Chief Justice of the Supreme Court (1801–1835). Cemented the concept of judicial review, making the judicial branch coequal to the executive and legislative. A Federalist, his rulings reinforced the supremacy of federal law. See: Marbury v. Madison.
• Chief Justice: The highest judicial officer in the United States. When in the majority of a ruling, the Chief Justice assigns the duty of who will write the majority’s opinion. The Chief Justice also has sway over which cases the Supreme Court will hear. By tradition, the Chief Justice administers the presidential oath of office. See: Earl Warren, John Jay, John Marshall, Roger Taney, William Howard Taft.
• Writ of mandamus: A court order to an inferior government official compelling them to carry out their legally obligated duties. Important in the reasoning of the Marbury v. Madison decision.
• Marbury v. Madison: 1803 ruling stated Congress cannot pass laws that are contrary to the Constitution, and that it is the judicial system’s job to interpret what the Constitution permits. Overturned a clause in the Judiciary Act of 1789 that granted the Supreme Court the power to command any subordinate government authority to take or not take an action that is that authority’s legal duty. See: judicial review, separation of powers, William Marbury.
• Impeachment: The process of a legislative body removing a government official from their appointed office. Impeachment is often mistaken for being successfully removed. In fact, it is merely the name for the overall process. Both Andrew Johnson and Bill Clinton were impeached but neither man was convicted of the charges laid against them. See: Samuel Chase.
• Samuel Chase: A Supreme Court justice. Served 1796–1811. The House impeached Chase owing to his highly Federalist partisan decisions. The Senate, however, refused to remove him because of the absence of any evidence of “high crimes and misdemeanors.” Thus, Jefferson’s attempt to push Federalist judges out of the system was unsuccessful, as most remained on the bench for life. The judges did tend to rule more to the president’s liking, however, once the threat of impeachment hung heavily over the judicial system. Nevertheless, this episode proved to be the last time that a Supreme Court justice would be impeached, maintaining the precious separation of powers between the legislative and judicial branches. See: midnight judges.
• Partisan: The supporter of a political figure or cause, to the point that it biases their actions. See: Samuel Chase.

Jefferson’s Challenges

• Twelfth Amendment: Ratified in 1804, it called for electors to the Electoral College to specify which ballot was being cast for the office of president and which was being cast for the office of vice president. In other words, the president and vice president were now elected as a unified ticket, rather than the vice president being the runner-up. The tie vote that occurred in 1800 between Jefferson and Burr would not happen again under this new amendment.
• Essex Junto: A group of radical Federalists plotting for a New England state secession from the Union. They had originally asked Hamilton if he would run for governor of New York to join in their exploits. Hamilton refused the offer, so the group then asked Aaron Burr if he would run. Burr gladly accepted. Upon hearing the news, Hamilton leaped at the chance to crush Burr’s chances of election by leading the opposition faction. Wary of Burr for his association with the Democratic-Republicans, Federalists in New York chose not to elect Aaron Burr as governor. The plot then faded away, but the whole incident contributed to the fatal Hamilton-Burr duel.
• John Randolph: Also known as John Randolph of Roanoke, he was Virginia planter once counted among Jefferson’s supporters in the House. Randolph opposed President Jefferson’s abandonment of his once staunch advocacy for states’ rights, believing the man had essentially become a Federalist. In reaction, Randolph founded the Quids.
• Quids: More formally known as the tertium quids (Latin for “a third something”). They were a conservative wing of the Democratic-Republican party that wished to restrict the role of the federal government. The Quids were founded in 1805 by John Randolph. See: Yazoo land scandal.
• Yazoo land scandal: A real estate fraud case in Georgia during the mid-1790s. The Quids stated that President Jefferson’s decision to pay companies restitution for illegally obtained land in Georgia (the Yazoo land scandal) proved that he was corrupt. This scandal led to a schism within the Democratic-Republican party that continued to plague Jefferson in his second term.
• Tripolitan War: A conflict fought (1801–1805) between the U.S. Navy and Mediterranean pirates based on the North African coast, with assistance by Sweden. Also known as the First Barbary War. The war was instigated by Barbary pirates attacking U.S. merchant vessels. The pirates held the crews for ransom and demanded tribute.
• Napoleonic Wars: The umbrella term for seven major European conflicts between 1803 and 1815, which spun out of the French Revolution and its various wars. The French Empire under Napoleon Bonaparte fought varying alliances of European powers that aimed to roll back the nationalism and liberalism unleashed by the French Revolution. The War of 1812 was a secondary theater in North America to these wars. In the end, following a failed invasion of Russia, Napoleon was defeated. The resulting Congress of Vienna redrew Europe’s borders, established a conservative anti-nationalistic, pro-monarchy consensus for several decades, and established the supremacy of the British Empire and the Pax Britannica until World War I.
• USS Chesapeake: In 1807, the British ship Leopard fired upon the USS Chesapeake, right off the coast of Virginia. The attack killed three Americans, and the British then impressed four sailors from Chesapeake. Despite the war fever taking hold in America, President Jefferson sought a diplomatic resolution via economic sanctions. This led to the Embargo Act of 1807.
• Embargo Act of 1807: Passed in response to British and French harassment of American shipping. However, this embargo mainly hurt the U.S. as neither nation was dependent on U.S. trade. Repealed in 1809 and replaced with the Non-Intercourse Act of 1809. The Embargo Act led to the Hartford Convention and the weakening of the U.S. ahead of the War of 1812.
• Non-Intercourse Act of 1809: Replaced the unpopular Embargo Act of 1807. This law allowed the United States to trade with foreign nations except Britain and France. Like its predecessor, the Embargo Act, it was difficult to enforce and mostly ineffective.

Madison and European Issues

• War hawks: ‘Hawk’ is nickname for pro-war activists. Pro-peace activist are often termed doves. In the specific context of the early nineteenth century, it refers to politicians like Henry Clay from Kentucky and John C. Calhoun from South Carolina who insisted that the War of 1812 would finally clear Britain’s influence from North America.
• Henry Clay: A statesman and orator from Kentucky, Clay was known as “The Great Compromiser” for brokering multiple deals over nullification and slavery. He was also a proponent of infrastructure development that he called the American System. Clay notably ran for president on several occasions but never won. See: Compromise of 1850, Great Triumvirate.
• John C. Calhoun: A South Carolina politician and member of the Great Triumvirate. Calhoun was an ardent supporter of states’ rights, nullification, and slavery. Calhoun, who had served as Andrew Jackson’s vice president, resigned from that office to return to the Senate, where he felt he could better defend the virtues of nullification. From his deathbed, Calhoun wrote fierce attacks upon the proposed Compromise of 1850 and affirmed the right of secession.
• Battle of Tippecanoe: A battle that took place in the Indiana Territory on November 7, 1811. American forces under the command of Governor William Henry Harrison battled Tecumseh’s Confederacy, an American Indian force of various tribes led by the Shawnee leader Tecumseh and his brother “The Prophet.” Harrison’s victory propelled him into the White House (briefly).
• William Henry Harrison: Ninth President. Served from March 4 to April 4, 1841, famously dying after 31 days in office. A hero of the War of 1812, specifically the Battle of Tippecanoe, his lively campaign saw the Whigs cart model log cabins to towns and distribute hard cider to boast of Harrison’s “poor” background. His “Tippecanoe and Tyler, too” ticket easily defeated Van Buren in 1840. However, he gave his Inaugural Address on a cold, rainy day and neglected to wear a warm coat. He contracted pneumonia and died. See: John Tyler.
• Tecumseh and the Prophet: A pair of Shawnee brothers, Tecumseh and the Prophet, who led a large native confederacy organized in the face of an American advance westward. The Prophet, born Tenskwatawa, was a traditionalist who wished to purge American Indian culture of any European influence. Then-Governor William Henry Harrison and his men successfully repulsed a surprise attack by them and subsequently burned a tribal settlement at Tippecanoe. This military disaster left the brothers with a poor reputation among American Indians.
• War of 1812: Often called “The Second War of Independence.” Fought 1812–1815. It is the U.S. term for the North American theater of the Napoleonic Wars. Tensions between the United States and Britain had been high since the attack on the USS Chesapeake. Following unsuccessful economic sanctions under the Jefferson administration, the Monroe administration was pressured into declaring war by Congressional War Hawks. The war went poorly, and nearly led to New England’s secession at the Hartford Convention. British forces burned the White House in August 1814. However, the United States managed not to lose territory before the Treaty of Ghent was signed, and the Battle of New Orleans reinvigorated U.S. morale.
• Fort McHenry: A base in Baltimore, Maryland. It was involved in the Battle of Baltimore during the War of 1812. U.S. soldiers valiantly held Fort McHenry through a night of bombing by the British Royal Navy in Chesapeake Bay, inspiring Francis Scott Key, who was being held prisoner on a nearby British ship, to write “The Star-Spangled Banner.”
• Francis Scott Key: Creator of “The Star-Spangled Banner.” See: Fort McHenry.
• The Star-Spangled Banner: The U.S. national anthem. Written by Francis Scott Key after witnessing the bombardment of Fort McHenry during the War of 1812. It was made the official national anthem in 1931 during the twilight of the Hoover administration, but had gained some official recognition as a national anthem by the Wilson administration in 1916.
• Andrew Jackson: Seventh President. Served 1829–1837. He gained fame for his defense of New Orleans during the War of 1812, a rare outright U.S. victory in that conflict. Jackson advocated for the “common man” against established interests, and supported universal male suffrage for whites, nixing the existing property requirement that barred the poor from participating in democracy. He also pushed for a spoils system to reward supporters, opposed abolitionism, and killed the Second Bank of the United States. He forcefully quashed South Carolina during the Nullification Crisis. Jackson is infamous for creating the Trail of Tears. See: Tariff of 1832.
• Battle of New Orleans: A battle fought between U.S. forces led by Andrew Jackson and British forces. It occurred from January 6–18, 1815. Jackson, desperate to secure the economically vital port of New Orleans, which controlled the flow of traffic along the Mississippi, recruited local free African Americans and even a band of pirates to supplement his militia. The battle was a stunning lopsided American victory. Due to the slow speed at which news traveled during this period, the battle actually occurred after the War of 1812 had officially ended.
• Treaty of Ghent: It ended the War of 1812, and was signed by American envoys and British diplomats in Belgium on December 24, 1814. The provisions of the treaty provided for the return of any conquered territories to their rightful owners, and the settlement of a boundary between Canada and the United States. Essentially, the war ended in a draw—neither side gained any major concessions, restitution, or apologies. Most Americans were pleased, however, because they had expected to lose territory. See: Battle of New Orleans, Hartford Convention.

Ideological Divides in the United States

• Hartford Convention: During the winter of 1814–1815, a radical group of New England Federalists met at Hartford, Connecticut to discuss ways to demand that the federal government pay them for the loss of trade due to the Embargo Act and the War of 1812. The group also proposed amending the Constitution to: limit the U.S. President to one term; require a two-thirds vote to enact an embargo, declare war, and admit new states; and repeal the Three-Fifths Compromise. Some even suggested secession. However, news of the war’s end and Jackson’s victory at New Orleans swept the nation, resulting in the Federalists being labeled unpatriotic and leading to their party’s demise.
• James Tallmadge: New York senator. He proposed an amendment to Missouri’s bid for statehood. After the admission of Missouri as a state, the Tallmadge Amendment would not have allowed any more slaves to be brought into the state and would have provided for the emancipation of the children of Missouri slaves at the age of 25 years. Southerners were outraged by this abolition attempt and crushed the amendment in the Senate. This led to the Missouri Compromise.
• Emancipation: The freeing of slaves. See: James Tallmadge.
• Missouri Compromise: Proposed by Henry Clay of Kentucky, it constituted three bills which collectively allowed for the admission of Missouri as a slave state while also admitting Maine as a free state. This would maintain the balance of power in the Senate. In addition, slavery would not be permitted in states admitted above the latitude 36 ̊30’ (with the exception of Missouri, which lay above the line). Clay’s compromise was accepted by both North and South and lasted for 34 years, earning him the title “the Great Compromiser.” Functionally repealed by Kansas-Nebraska Act, but not officially overturned until the Dred Scott v. Sandford ruling declared it was unconstitutional.

Monroe and the Era of Good Feelings

• Era of Good Feelings: A period of national unity, it began with the close of the War of 1812 and ended in the 1820s. It saw the collapse of the Federalist Party and a decline in partisanship. It was followed by a revival of partisan bickering between the Jacksonian Democrats and the Whigs.
• John Quincy Adams: Sixth President. Served from 1825–1829. Son of John Adams. In his lifetime, JQA was a member of basically every major political party at some point. He was elected after striking a deal with Henry Clay in the disputed 1824 election. Following his presidency, JQA was elected to the House in 1830, and served until his death in 1848. He became increasingly opposed to slavery, even arguing before the Supreme Court in 1841 on behalf of African slaves in the Amistad case, winning them their freedom. He criticized the Mexican-American War.
• Monroe Doctrine: Proposed by President Monroe in his annual address to Congress in 1823, it quickly became the basis of U.S. foreign policy in Latin America. The doctrine called for “nonintervention” in Latin America and an end to European colonization. Though the U.S. did not actually have an strong enough military to defend the doctrine if necessary, it remained firm and adhered to the Doctrine throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. See: Roosevelt Corollary.
• Tariff of 1816: Because of a postwar upsurge in nationalism after the War of 1812, there was a strong desire to protect all things American, especially the burgeoning industrial economy. To prevent cheap British goods from flooding the market and injuring American manufacturing, Congress passed the Tariff of 1816, which imposed a 20 percent duty on all imported goods and became the first truly “protective tariff ” in American history. However, the passage of the tariff was unpopular in the South due to its export-oriented agricultural economy. The tariff was allowed to lapse in 1820. See: Panic of 1819.
• Daniel Webster: U.S. senator from Massachusetts (1827–1841, 1845–1850) and Secretary of State under Harrison and Tyler (1841–1843) and Fillmore (1850–1852). A Whig politician and member of the Great Triumvirate. During the debate over the Tariff of 1816, he complained that New England had not developed enough to withstand interruptions in its ability to trade freely with Britain. He opposed nullification. He often sought the presidency but never won. He resigned his Senate seat over the negative reception to his support for the Compromise of 1850.
• American System: Proposed by Henry Clay of Kentucky, it sought to establish manufacturing and bring in much needed revenue for internal improvements throughout the country. It included the recharter of the Bank of the United States; protective tariffs, such as the one passed in 1816; and improvements on American infrastructure, such as turnpikes, roads, and canals. The South did not support the plan, as plantations (especially cotton ones) made their money on export. Internal improvements also required a stronger federal government, which potentially threatened the South’s control over their slave population.
• Second Bank of the United States: A national bank, patterned on Alexander Hamilton’s design for the original. It existed from 1818–1824. The BUS was chartered by James Madison in 1816, as he felt the need to strengthen the central government after the problems encountered during the War of 1812. However, the bank contributed to the Panic of 1819, infuriating many and leading to Andrew Jackson’s successful effort to kill it. However, this act by Jackson would contribute to long-running instability in the American economy until the creation of the Federal Reserve System after the Panic of 1907.

The Rise of the Two-Party System

• Rise of the Common Man: An aspect of what became the Jacksonian Democrats. By 1820, many states had adopted universal male suffrage for whites, eliminating the property-owning requirement to be able to vote. This era signaled a retreat from exclusive rule by the well-to-do and a shift to a more democratic society.
• Democrats: During the Era of Good Feelings, the Democratic-Republicans fragmented. During the 1828 election, the Democrats supported Andrew Jackson and the National Republican faction supported Henry Clay. Jackson’s faction founded the modern Democratic Party. In this period, prior to the Civil War, the (Jacksonian) Democrats favored an agrarian economy, ending the national bank, lowering tariffs, and increasing the political power of the “common man,” such as through universal male suffrage for whites. They also supported states’ rights and federal restraint in social affairs.
• National Republicans: A faction of the splintering Democratic-Republicans during the 1828 election. They supported Henry Clay and opposed Andrew Jackson. The National Republicans eventually became the Whig Party in 1836. Whig ideology was very similar to the platform of the old Federalist Party. See: Democrats.
• Whig Party: The Whig Party was born out of opposition to Jacksonian Democrats. The Whigs favored economic nationalism, a strong central government, and rechartering the national bank. They believed in protectionist measures such as tariffs to support American industrialization. They also promoted Clay’s American System as a way to improve the roads, canals, and infrastructure of the country. The party collapsed over the question of slavery’s expansion into newly acquired territories.
• Two-party system: The United States is noted for its enduring two-party system; the life cycle of which two parties are dominant is referred to as a Party System. There are five recognized party systems, although a Sixth Party System (starting in the late 1960s) is sometimes also listed.
• McCulloch v. Maryland: An 1819 case that challenged the doctrine of federalism. It involved the state of Maryland attempting to collect a tax from the Second Bank of the United States. Marshall invoked the “necessary and proper” clause of the Constitution to rule that the federal government had an implied power to establish the bank. He also declared that the state had no right to tax a federal institution; he argued that “the power to tax was the power to destroy” and would signal the end of federalism. Most importantly, the ruling established that federal laws were the supreme law of the land, superseding state laws.
• Specie Circular: A requirement instituted by the Jackson administration. The payment for the purchase of all federal lands had to be made in hard coin, or specie, rather than banknotes. Contributed to the Panic of 1837.
• Panic of 1837: A financial crisis that lasted from 1837 until the mid 1840s. Caused, in part, by Andrew Jackson killing the Bank of the United States and issuing the Specie Circular, the latter of which caused the value of paper money to plummet.
• Tariff of 1828: This tariff came about in response to New England merchants who had been pushing for stronger protection from foreign competitors. However, the new tariff was incredibly damaging to the southern economy, causing Vice President John C. Calhoun to secretly write “The Southern Carolina Exposition and Protest,” which threatened South Carolina’s secession. Calling the tariff the “Tariff of Abominations,” Calhoun recommended that the southern states declare it to be null and void (nuff liciation) if the federal government refused to lower the duty requirement. In an attempt to appease the South, Jackson signed into law the Tariff of 1832.
• Tariff of 1832: It lowered the Tariff of 1828’s rate from 45 percent to 35 percent in a failed attempt to placate the South. Calhoun resigned from the vice presidency in response. South Carolina voted to nullify the Tariff of 1832 and threatened to secede if Jackson attempted to collect the duties by force. In response, Jackson encouraged Congress to lower tariffs even more. However, he also asked Congress to pass the Force Bill, which gave the president the power to use the military to collect tariffs. This signaled to the South that their threats would not be tolerated. In response, South Carolina rescinded the nullification. However, the tensions between the North and the South would continue to escalate, culminating in the Civil War.
• Spoils system: A form of political corruption where a political parties rewards its supporters with favors, often posts to public office. Andrew Jackson was a proponent of the spoils system, in which he appointed those who supported his campaign to government positions. Jackson created jobs and appointed many friends to his unofficial cabinet, earning it the name “Kitchen Cabinet” from critics. See: political machines, Pendleton Civil Service Act.
• Indian Removal Act: This law provided for the immediate forced resettlement of American Indians living in Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, and present-day Illinois. By 1835, some 100,000 Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole American Indians had been forcibly removed from their homelands. See: Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, Trail of Tears, Worcester v. Georgia.
• Cherokee Nation v. Georgia: A Supreme Court case from 1831. The Marshall court ruled that the Cherokee Tribe was not a sovereign foreign nation and, therefore, had no right to sue for jurisdiction over its homelands. See: Worcester v. Georgia.
• Worcester v. Georgia: A Supreme Court case (1832) which ruled that the state of Georgia could not infringe on the Cherokee Nation’s sovereignty, thus nullifying Georgia state laws within the tribe’s territory. President Jackson, incensed, allegedly said, “John Marshall has made his decision; now let him enforce it.” The expulsion of the Cherokee resulted in the Trail of Tears. Also notable as being one of the few times a president ignored a Supreme Court ruling.

Religious Revival and Reform Movements

• Second Great Awakening: A Protestant religious movement that took place across the United States between the 1790s and the 1840s. It peaked in the 1820s. Unlike the (First) Great Awakening, it gradually came to place a greater emphasis on slavery as a sin. See: abolitionism, American Temperance Society, Baptist, Charles G. Finney, Methodist.
• Charles G. Finney: A Presbyterian minister during the Second Great Awakening. Like Jonathan Edwards of the First Great Awakening, Finney appealed to his audience’s emotions, rather than to their reason. His “fire and brimstone” sermons became commonplace in upstate New York. Finney insisted that parishioners could save themselves through good works and a steadfast faith in God. He also was an abolitionist, and condemned slavery from the pulpit.
• Methodists: Methodism is a form of Protestant Christianity based on the teachings of John Wesley. It split off from the Anglican Church. They accept infant baptism and stress charitable work, especially that which alleviates the suffering of the poor. During the Second Great Awakening, Methodist and Baptist ministers often preached at tent revivals, converting thousands. This led to these two forms of Protestantism becoming the two largest denominations of Christianity in the U.S. during this period.
• Baptists: An evangelical sect of Protestant Christianity. Generally, they believe that baptism should only be performed on adults who can profess their faith (as opposed to infant baptism). Baptists also believe in salvation through faith alone, not requiring good works, and in the supremacy of the Bible as the sole authority over theological matters. During the Second Great Awakening, Methodist and Baptist ministers often preached at tent revivals, converting thousands. This led to these two forms of Protestantism becoming the two largest denominations of Christianity in the U.S. during this period.
• American Temperance Society: Revival preachers of the Second Great Awakening joined forces in the 1820s to form the American Temperance Society. While their initial goal was to encourage drinkers simply to limit their alcohol intake, the movement soon evolved to demand absolute abstinence, as reformers began to see the negative effects that any alcohol consumption had on people’s lives. The movement quickly earned the support of state leaders as decreased alcohol use resulted in fewer on-the-job accidents and more overall productivity. The most active members of temperance societies tended to be middle-class women.
• Dorothea DIx: Revival preachers of the Second Great Awakening joined forces in the 1820s to form the American Temperance Society. While their initial goal was to encourage drinkers simply to limit their alcohol intake, the movement soon evolved to demand absolute abstinence, as reformers began to see the negative effects that any alcohol consumption had on people’s lives. The movement quickly earned the support of state leaders as decreased alcohol use resulted in fewer on-the-job accidents and more overall productivity. The most active members of temperance societies tended to be middle-class women.
• Sylvester Graham: A nineteenth-century Presbyterian minister, Reverend Graham is best known for advocating vegetarianism and supporting the temperance movement. Graham crackers were not invented by him, but they are named in his honor.
• John Harvey Kellogg: Inventor of the corn flake, he espoused the importance of healthy diets. Dr. Kellogg established the Battle Creek Mental Institution to put his ideas about diet and health into practice.
• Cult of domesticity: The Industrial Revolution had social consequences. People no longer necessarily labored in the field or in small home industries. As children became less important as a source of labor, and men took factory jobs, the position of women became centered on the home. This led to the elevation of motherhood and homemaking in the “cult of domesticity” in the early nineteenth century.
• Abolitionists: Advocates for ending slavery. Aside from the influence of Enlightenment ideas about freedom, many abolitionists believed that slavery was sinful and, therefore, must be eliminated. As Charles Sumner said in 1860: “[God] set an everlasting difference between man and a chattel, giving to man dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over every living thing that moveth upon the earth:—that fight we hold By His donation; but man over men He made not lord, such title to Himself Reserving, human left from human free.”
• Lucretia Mott: An abolitionist, pacifist, Quaker, and suffragist. After being barred from attending the World Anti-Slavery Convention in 1840, she became interest in women’s rights, and helped convene the Seneca Falls Convention. She co-wrote the Declaration of Sentiments.
• Elizabeth Cady Stanton: American suffragist and abolitionist who co-founded the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) in 1890 with Susan B. Anthony. Attended the Seneca Falls conference and was the principal author of the Declaration of Sentiments.
• Susan B. Anthony: A noted abolitionist and women’s suffragist. With other feminists, she organized an landmark convention at Seneca Falls, New York, to discuss the plight of U.S. women. She co-founded the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) in 1890. Died in 1906. See: Declaration of Sentiments, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott
• Declaration of Sentiments: The women at the Seneca Falls Convention (1848) drafted this document. Modeled after the Declaration of Independence, it declared that “all men and women are created equal” and demanded suffrage for women. Much like the earlier temperance movement, the women’s crusade soon became eclipsed by the abolitionist movement and did not resurface until closer to the turn of the twentieth century. See: Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott, Susan B. Anthony.
• American Anti-slavery Society: Founded by William Lloyd Garrison in 1833, it opposed slave traders and owners. Garrison’s radicalism soon alienated many moderates within the movement when he claimed that the Constitution was a pro-slavery document. Garrison’s insistence on the participation of women in the movement led to division among his supporters and the formation of the Liberty Party, which accepted women, and the American and Foreign Anti-slavery Society, which did not.
• Liberty Party: Along with his radicalism and his attacks on churches, William Lloyd Garrison’s insistence on the participation of women in his American Antislavery Society led to a division among its supporters. This splinter faction, the Liberty Party, accepted women members. Contrast with: Foreign Anti-slavery Society.
• Foreign Anti-slavery Society: Along with his radicalism and his attacks on churches, William Lloyd Garrison’s insistence on the participation of women in his American Antislavery Society led to a division among its supporters. This splinter faction, the Foreign Anti-slavery Society, did not accept women members. Contrast with: Liberty Party.
• Harriet Tubman: She escaped from slavery and later helped others do the same with the Underground Railroad. Tubman helped John Brown recruit his band for the raid on Harper’s Ferry. After the Civil War, she advocated for women’s suffrage.
• Sojourner Truth: An African American abolitionist and suffragist. Born into slavery in New York and speaking Dutch as her first language, she is notable as the first black woman to win a court case against a white man. She gave herself her own name in 1843. She is best known for the “Ain’t I a Woman?” speech, which advocated for both abolitionism and women’s rights.
• Frederick Douglas: A former slave, Douglass published The North Star, an antislavery journal that chronicled the ugliness of slavery and argued that the Constitution could be used as a weapon against slavery. Thus, Douglass argued for fighting slavery through legal means in contrast to some other radical abolitionists, who advocated varying degrees of violence to achieve abolition. His 1845 memoir, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, became a bestseller and inspired many abolitionists. An egalitarian, he also supported women’s suffrage.
• Underground Railroad: A network of abolitionists and abolitionist-sympathizers who helped slaves escape into free states and Canada. Members included Sojourner Truth and Harriet Tubman, among many others. The Underground Railroad gained greater support after the Compromise of 1850. At its peak, approximately 1,000 slaves per year escaped.
• Nat Turner’s Rebellion: Turner, an enslaved African American from Virginia, organized a massive slave uprising in 1831. It resulted in the deaths of over 50 white men, women, and children, and the retaliatory killings of hundreds of slaves. Afterwards, states across the South passed laws restricting civil rights for all African Americans, free or slave, and banned educating them as well. See: slave codes.
• Mormon: The common name for members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints.
• Joseph Smith: Founder of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (the Mormon Church). According to Mormon tradition, an angel visited the young Joseph Smith in western New York in 1823 to reveal the location of a sacred text that was inscribed on gold plates and had been buried by the fabled “Lost Tribe of Israel.” By 1830, Joseph Smith had allegedly translated the sacred text. He was murdered by a mob in Illinois in 1844.
• Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints: Informally known as the Mormon Church, it was founded by Joseph Smith. The followers of Mormonism were ostracized and harassed—in large part, due to the practice of polygamy (having multiple wives)—by their surrounding community and left New York to head west. The Mormons later settled in Utah.
• Brigham Young: Following the 1844 murder of Joseph Smith, he became the new leader of the Mormons, holding that position for 29 years until his own death in 1877 from a ruptured appendix. He led his followers west, finally settling in present-day Utah.
• Transcendentalists: A name for artists and writers of the Romantic Era, specifically ones who emphasized emotions and the connection between man and nature. They were a reaction to both the rationality of the Enlightenment and the burgeoning Industrial Revolution. Examples include Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau; they claimed that each person was able to communicate with God and nature directly, eliminating the need for organized churches. They promoted individualism, self-reliance, and freedom from social constraints.
• Ralph Waldo Emerson: An American poet and essayist, and member of the transcendentalist movement. He was a close friend of Henry David Thoreau. Like Thoreau, he supported abolitionism and stressed self-reliance.
• Henry David Thoreau: A transcendentalist whose book Walden chronicled a self-initiated experiment in which Thoreau removed himself from society by living in seclusion in the woods for two years. However, perhaps even more influential was his essay “On Civil Disobedience,” in which he advocated passive resistance as a form of justifiable protest. This essay would inspire later social movement leaders Mahatma Gandhi and Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. An abolitionist, he also opposed the Mexican-American War.

Birth of American Culture

• Hudson River School: A form of large-scale landscape paintings from the Romantic era.
• Knickerbockers: A name for members of the Knickerbocker Group, a vague collection of American authors influenced by the nationalistic mood that followed the War of 1812. Washington Irving developed American fiction by using domestic settings and character types for their stories. Tales such as Rip Van Winkle and The Legend of Sleepy Hollow were based on preexisting stories. Tales of the frontier were glorified by James Fenimore Cooper, whose The Last of the Mohicans gained worldwide attention. Nathaniel Hawthorne’s The Scarlet Letter and Herman Melville’s Moby-Dick addressed important questions regarding religion and morality.
• Robert Fulton: Inventor of the steamboat, which he created in 1807. Before the steamboat, river travel was done by flatboats or by keelboats. The steamboat allowed goods and people to be transported easily both upstream and downstream. See: Erie Canal.
• Erie Canal: Completed in 1825 with funds provided by the state of New York, it linked the Great Lakes with the Hudson River. As a result, the cost of shipping dropped dramatically, and port cities along the length of the canal and its terminal points began to develop and flourish.
• Nativists: Anti-immigrant activists in the nineteenth century. In this period, many native-born Americans were Protestants of English ancestry. They disliked the large numbers of Irish and Germans that began to arrive in the 1840s, especially due to their Roman Catholic faith, which attracted paranoia about them being a fifth column for the Pope. Many Central Europeans were also leftists fleeing from prosecution after the failed Revolutions of 1848. On the West Coast, Chinese immigrants prompted similar xenophobic sentiments. See: American Party (Know-Nothing Party), Chinese Exclusion Act, Emergency Quota Act.
• American Party, or “Know-Nothing Party”: In 1849, a wing of the nativist movement became a political party called the American Party. The group opposed both immigration and the election of Roman Catholics to political office. The members of the party met in secret and would not tell anyone what they stood for, saying, “I know nothing,” when asked. This provided the basis for the group’s more common name.
• Eli Whitney: Famously invented the cotton gin in 1793, which sped up the process of removing the seeds from raw cotton, making cotton the number one cash crop of the South. Plantation owners switched from growing tobacco to growing cotton to keep up with increasing demands from domestic and overseas markets. He also popularized (but did not invent) the concept of interchangeable machine parts. See: King Cotton.
• King Cotton: Made possible by Eli Whitney’s cotton gin, King Cotton was when the lucrative cotton export business caused an expansion of slavery, from one million slaves to four million in 50 years, because more workers were needed to work the fields. It essentially made civil war inevitable, as slave owners now had too much invested in the institution of slavery to ever accept voluntarily emancipation, as some former slave states in the North had. See: slave codes.
• Slave codes: These laws were aimed at oppressing enslaved Africans, discouraging free blacks from living in the South, and preventing slave revolts. They were created to support the exploitative slave plantation economy of King Cotton, as well as to suppress potential slave uprisings like Nat Turner’s Rebellion. Compare with: Jim Crow laws, sharecropping.