Psych Midterm (14, 3, 4 only)

Social Psychology: The scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

Attribution theory: the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition

Fundamental attribution error: The tendency for observers, when analyzing others behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal dispositions

Attitudes: Feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events

Peripheral route persuasion: occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speakers attractiveness

Central route persuasion: occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thought

The foot-in-the-door phenomenon: the tendency for people who have first agreed to a smaller request to comply later with a larger request

Role: a set of expectations about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

Cognitive dissonance theory: the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when 2 of our thoughts are inconsistent. For example, when we become aware that our attitudes and actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudesConformity: adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard

Normative social influence: influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

Informational social influence: influence resulting from one’s willingness to accept others opinions about realitySocial facilitation: improved performance on simple or well learned tasks in the presence of others

Social loafing: the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

Deindividuation: the loss of self-awareness or self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

Group polarization: the enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group

Groupthink: the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

Culture: the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

Norm: an understood rule for acceptable and expected behavior. Norms prescribe “proper” behaviorPrejudice: An unjustifiable and usually negative attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action

Stereotype: A generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people

Discrimination: Unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members

Just-world phenomenon: The tendency for people to believe the word is just and that people therefor get what they deserve and deserve what they get

Ingroup: “Us” People with whom we share a common identity

Outgroup: “Them” those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup

Ingroup Bias: The tendency to favor our own group

Scapegoat theory: The theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame

Other-race effect: The tendency to recall faces of one’s own race more accurately than faces of other races. Also called the cross-race effect or the own-race bias.Aggression: any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy

Frustration-aggression principle: the principle that frustration--the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal-- creates anger, which can generate aggression

Social script: culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situationsMere exposure effect: the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them

Passionate love: an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship

Compassionate love: the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined

Equity: a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to get it

Self-disclosure: revealing intimate aspects of oneself to othersAltruism: unselfish regard for the welfare of others

bystander effect: the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

Social exchange theory: the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize errors

Reciprocity norm: an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them

Social responsibility norm: an expectation that people will help those needing their help

Conflict: an perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas

Social trap: a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self interest rather than the good of the group, become caught in mutually destructive behavior

Mirror image perceptions: mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as a evil and aggressive

Self fulfilling prophecy: a belief that leads to its own fulfillment

Superordinate goals: shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation

GRIT: Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction-- a strategy designed to decrease international tensions

Biological psychology: the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes. (Some biological psychologists call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists

Neuron: a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

Dendrites: a neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

Axon: the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands

Myelin sheath: a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one sausage-like node to the next

action potential: a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

Refractory period: a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired

Threshold: the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

All-or-none response: a neuron’s reaction of either firing (with a full strength response) or not firing

Synapse: the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft

Neurotransmitters: chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters transmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse

Reuptake: a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron

Endorphins: “morphine within” -- natural opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

Agonist: a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response

Antagonist: a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, inhibits or blocks a responsethe nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

Central nervous system (CNS): the brain and the spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system (PNS): the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body

Nerves: bundled axons that form neural “cables” connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs

Sensory (afferent) neurons: neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and the spinal cord

Motor (efferent) neurons: neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

Interneurons: neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

somatic nervous system: the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system

autonomic nervous system (ANS): the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscle of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses, its parasympathetic division calms

Sympathetic nervous system: the division of autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

Parasympathetic nervous system: the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

Reflex: a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response

endocrine system: the body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

Hormones: chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands travel through the bloodstream and affect other tissues

Adrenal glands: a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress

Pituitary gland: the endocrine system’s most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland regulates growth and controls other endocrine glandsLesion: tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

Electroencephalogram (EEG): an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp

CT (computer tomography) scan: a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain’s structure

PET (positron emission tomography) scan: a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging): a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy

fMRI (functional MRI): a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show how brain function as well as its structure

Brainstem: the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions

Medulla: the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

Thalamus: the brain’s sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

Reticular formation: a nerve network that travels through the brainstem and thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal

Cerebellum: the “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory

Limbic system: neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives

Amygdala: 2 lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion

Hypothalamus: a neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward Cerebral cortex: the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body’s ultimate control and information-processing center

Glial cells (glia): cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning and thinking

Frontal lobes: portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead, involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgment

Parietal lobes: portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position

Occipital lobes: portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields

temporal lobes: portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears, includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear

motor cortex: an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movement

Somatosensory cortex: area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

Association areas: areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning remembering, thinking, and speaking

Plasticity: the brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

Neurogenesis: the formation of new neurons Corpus callosum: the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

Split brain: a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain’s two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them

Consciousness: our awareness of ourselves and our environment

Cognitive neuroscience: the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition(including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

Dual processing: the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks Behavior genetics: the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influence on behavior

Environment: every external influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us

Chromosomes: threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes

DNA(deoxyribonucleic acid): a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up chromosomes

Genes: the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins

Genome: the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organisms chromosomes

Identical twins(monozygotic): twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating 2 genetically identical organisms

Fraternal twins(dizygotic): twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment

Molecular genetics: the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes

Heritability: the properties of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied

Interaction: the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor(such as environment) depends on another factor(such as heredity)

Epigenetics: the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change Evolutionary psychology: the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

Natural selection: the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

Mutation: a random error in gene replication that leads to a significant changeSensation: the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

Perception: The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, and enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

Bottom-up processing: analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brains integration of sensory information

top-down processing: information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

selective attention: The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

inattentional blindness: Failing to see visible objects when attention is directed elsewhere

Change blindness: failing to notice changes in the environment

Transduction: conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brain can interpret

Psychophysics: the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity and our psychological experience of them

Absolute threshold: The minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time

Signal detection theory: A theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes that there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness

Subliminal: Below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness

Priming: The activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response

Difference threshold: The minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference or (jnd)

Weber’s law: the principle that, to be perceived as Different, 2 stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount).

Sensory adaptation: diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulationWavelength: the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission

Hue: the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth

Intensity: The amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the waves amplitude

Pupil: the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters

Iris: a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil that controls the size of the pupil opening

Lens: The transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina

Retina: The light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information

Accommodation: The process by which the eyes lens changes shape to focus near or near or far objects on the retina

Rods: Retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond

Cones: retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. the cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations

Optic nerve: The nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

Blind spot: the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a “blind” spot because no receptor cells are located there

Fovea: The central focal point in the retina, around which the eyes cones cluster

Feature detectors: nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus such as shape, angle, or movement

Parallel processing: The processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrast with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving

Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (THREE COLOR) theory: The theory that the retina contains three different color receptors--one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue--which when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color

Opponent-process theory: The theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green

Synesthesia: Joined senses, signals are interpreted as more than 1 sensation because they go to places in the brain they’re not meant to be -> sound and sight, as many as 60-80 subtypes Gestalt: an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes

Figure-ground: the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground)

Grouping: the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups

Depth perception: the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance

Visual cliff: a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

Binocular cues: depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of 2 eyes

retinal disparity: a binocular cue for perceiving depth: By comparing images from the retinas in the 2 eyes, the brain computes distance-- the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object

Monocular cues: depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone

Phi phenomenon: an illusion of movement created when 2 or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession

Perceptual constancy: perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent shapes, size, brightness, and color) even as illumination and retinal images change

Color constancy: perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing, illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object

perceptual adaptation: in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field Audition: the sense or act of hearing

Frequency: the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per second)

Pitch: a tone’s experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency

Middle ear: the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval window

Cochlea: a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear, sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses

Inner ear: the innermost part of the ear containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs

Sensorineural hearing loss: hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness

Conduction hearing loss: hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea

Cochlear implant: a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea

Place theory: in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea’s membrane in stimulated

Frequency theory: in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch Gate-control theory: the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The “gate” is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain

Kinesthesia: the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts

Vestibular sense: the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance

Sensory interaction: the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste

Embodied cognition: in psychological science, the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgements