Grade 11 Biology Exam

• Plant vs. Animals

• Carbohydrates: Monosaccharide/ Disaccharide/ Polysaccharides

Function: Provide short-term/long-term energy storage, provide materials to build cell membranes

• Contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen (CH2O)

• C6H12O6

• C12H22O11

• Building blocks of macronutrients

MACROMOLECULES - larger, more complex assemblies of organic molecules needed to provide energy, to regulate cellular activities and to build and repair tissues.

• 4 ESSENTIAL: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids (cannot be made by body, obtained from food)

• Macronutrient → the macromolecules that provide dietary energy to the body. Main macronutrients are carbohydrates, fats and proteins. 

• Function: required to perform life functions and obtain energy for survival (maintaining metabolism = chemical processes carried out by cells to maintain life)

Carbohydrates: 

Fats: (glycerol + 3 fatty acids)

• Basic structure → glycerol - 3 carbon atoms attached to fatty acid chain (trail of carbon and hydrgoen)

Amino Acids (PROTEIN): 

• STRUCTURE of Amino acid → Amino group (NH2) + Hydrogen (H) + Carboxyl Group (O-H-C=O) + “R” side chain

• Prezygotic vs. Post zygotic reproductive isolating mechanisms

• 6 Kingdoms - descriptions - classification system

1. Plantae → Multicellular, eukaryotic

2. Animalia → multicellular, eukaryotic

3. Fungi → multicellular, eukaryotic

4. Protista → eukaryotic, unicellular and multicellular 

5. Eubacteria →unicellular, prokaryotic

6. Archaebacteria → unicellular

• Genus + Species name

Genus:

• A genus is a taxonomic classification that includes closely related species

• The first component of the binomial name

Species:

• A species is defined as a group of organisms made up of similar individuals capable of interbreeding or exchanging genes.

• The second component of the binomial name

• 7 Taxa (K-P-C-O-F-G-S)

• Kingdom

• Phylum

• Class

• Order

• Family

• Genus

• Species

• Classification Chart

• Punctuated Equilibrium vs. Gradualism

Gradualism

• new species that evolve appear very similar to the originator species and gradually become more distinctive

• evolutionary change = slow and steady, big changes occur by the accumulation of many small changes

• show transitional forms

Punctuated Equilibrium

• species evolve very rapidly in evolutionary time

• speciation usually occurs in small isolated populations and thus intermediate fossils are very rare

• Species do not change significantly over long periods of time

• long periods of stasis or equilibrium = interrupted by periods of divergence

• most species undergo much of their morphological change when they first diverge from the parent species → they change relatively little after

• Photosynthesis vs. cellular respiration

• Organelles

• Structures of Systems of the body

• Bacteria vs. Viruses

• Vestigial Structures

• features of an organism that are considered to have lost much or all of their original function through evolution

• EX: Appendix, goosebumps, tonsils, wisdom teeth

• Hardy Weinberg

• Must have large population - less chance to wipeout of one of the phenotypes, smaller populations = more mutations

• Mating must be random - less recessive diseases/mutations take place

• No Migration into or out of the population (gene flow) - 

• No natural selection - no competition, no survival of the fittest 

• No mutations can occur → cancer, mutations do occur, 

• Arteries/ veins - Pulmonary?

Pulmonary Artery - carries deoxygenated blood from right ventricle of heart → lungs

Pulmonary Vein - carry oxygenated blood from vein → heart

• Meiosis I and II

• Crossing over/ synapsis

• Swapping parts of chromosomes, changes in genes, produces recombinant chromosomes

• during prophase I of meiosis

• Mechanics of breathing

• 2 MUSCLES used to control air pressure in lungs

1. Intercostal Muscles (found between ribs)

2. Diaphragm

Inspiration: Diaphragm contracts (moves down), rib cage expands, rib muscles contract, air enters lungs

• Air pressure in lungs lower than in external environment, volume of air increases

Expiration: Diaphragm relaxes (moves up), rib cage gets smaller, rib muscles relax, air leaves lungs

• Air pressure in lungs greater than in external environment, volume of air decreases

• Surface area

Respiratory System:

1. Turbinates - bones in the nostrils increase surface area of the nose

2. Alveoli - increase the surface area of lungs, promote diffusion of gases 

Digestive System:

1. Rugae -folds in the stomach that allow dor further expansion and increased surface area

2. Villi - finger-like structures on the surface of the small intestine that increase area for absorption of food

• Gas exchange

•  some CO2 dissolves in plasma, some attaches to hemoglobin

• most CO2 reacts with water in cytoplasm 

--> makes carbonic acid (H2CO3)

--> Carbonic Anhydrase = enzyme converts carbon dioxide and water into carbonic acid

--> becomes H+ and HCO3- (bicarbonate) ions, which are later changed back into CO2

- EXTRA H+ ions in RBC bind to hemoglobin, help remove oxygen

• HAPPENS IN ALVEOLI

Factors that may affect diffusion:

Chatting on google docs is crazy

i

https://quizlet.com/143610805/learn what is that 

Punnett Squares - sex linked, incomplete, dihybrid crosses, blood typing

Heterozygous (hybrid) - homozygous (pureline/ purebred)

Gametogenesis

Nondisjunction disorders

Passageway of blood through the heart

DNA - all you know - structure - made of ...

Dihybrid Cross

Natural Selection

Species and Speciation

Types of Selection (stabilizing, disruptive, directional, sexual)

Digestive System - Organs - labelling - functions

Circulatory System : The Heart - parts, labelling, function - pathway of blood

Respiratory System : parts, function, labelling- pathway of air

• Veins and Arteries

Dichotomous Key

Karyotyping

Macromolecules (carbohydrates, fats and proteins) – building blocks – functions in body energy provision

MACROMOLECULES - larger, more complex assemblies of organic molecules needed to provide energy, to regulate cellular activities and to build and repair tissues.

Function: required to perform life functions and obtain energy for survival (maintaining metabolism = chemical processes carried out by cells to maintain life)

• Raw materials needed to help provide energy, to regulate cellular activities and build/repair tissues

• Organic molecules → carbon bonded to hydrogen as well as to other atoms EX Oxygen, Sulfur, Nitrogen

• 4 ESSENTIAL: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids (cannot be made by body, obtained from food)

• Carbohydrates : simple (monosaccharides/ disaccharides) – what are they? and complex (polysaccharides) - Differences in structure

• Fats: (glycerol + 3 fatty acids)

• Insoluble in water

• Basic structure → glycerol - 3 carbon atoms attached to fatty acid chain (trail of carbon and hydrgoen)

• Carry more energy per gram than other biological molecules

Function: could be for energy storage // phosoplipids form the membrane that separates a cell from its external environment 

EX: butter, oils

Triglycerides = most common type of fat in blood stored in cells, glycerol + 3 fatty acids, converted from calories the body doesn’t use right away, released between meals

Fatty acids: saturated vs. unsaturated (monounsaturated/ polyunsaturated) –differences and structure

Fatty Acid STRUCTURE: Hydrocarbon chain + Carboxyl Group (HO-C=O) 

Glycogen storage? 

• Main source of energy stored in liver and muscles

• Polysaccharide, excess glucose, stores energy in animals

• LDL vs. HDL - cholesterol 

Low-density lipoprotein - bad cholesterol, should be low numbers

High-density lipoprotein - ok

• Carry cholesterol through body

 Proteins (building blocks: amino acids and their “R” groups) – functional groups

Function: help build and repair muscles and cell membranes

• Made from amino acids, joined by peptide bonds

• Chains of amino acids = polypeptide, two amino acids = dipeptide

• Most enzymes = proteins and antibodies

• 20 AMINO ACIDS, 8-9 essential

STRUCTURE of Amino acid: Amino group (NH2) + Hydrogen (H) + Carboxyl Group (O-H-C=O) + “R” side chain   Hydroxyl (O-H) 

• Dehydrations synthesis vs. Hydrolysis

Dehydration Synthesis: chemical reaction that involves the loss of a water molecule from the reacting molecule. MULTIPLE CHOICE

EX: glucose + fructose = sucrose → monosaccharide + monosaccharide = disaccharide

Hydrolysis: adds water back into the chemical reaction

 Micronutrients (vitamins vs. minerals) – functions in body and deficiencies

• Inorganic and organic substances that enable chemical reactions to occur

Function: enable/aid in tissue development, growth and immunity

• Nitrogen deficiency causes hair loss, delayed wound healing, muscle weakness and wasting. 

• Calcium deficiency increases the risk of osteoporosis, results in weak hair, nails, memory loss and seizures. 

• Magnesium deficiency can cause tics, muscle spasms and cramps, seizures, anxiety and irregular heart rhythms. 

• Iron deficiency (very common) symptoms include fatigue, slow cognitive and social development, difficulty maintaining body temperature, decreased immune function and glossitis 

• Potassium deficiency causes weakness, tiredness, cramping in muscles, tingling or numbness, nausea and vomiting.

• Copper deficiency symptoms include fatigue, paleness, low body temperature, anemia, brittle bones, muscle soreness, joint pain, stunted growth, bruising, and sores.

Function of water in the body

Functions: transportation of nutrients, flushing toxins. Lubricating tissues/joints, forming body fluids (blood, mucus..), regulating body temperature, eliminating waste

• Need to drink water to replace lost fluids in sweating, urine, perspiration…

- Alimentary canal vs. Accessory organs

Alimentary canal → where food passes through

Accessory organs → food does not pass through

• Mechanical vs. Chemical Digestion – location and examples

MOUTH → the teeth bite/grind/chew the food while saliva moistens the food and releases enzymes to help break it down (starch → maltose)

STOMACH → the stomach churns the food and mixes it with gastric juices, the HCL helps break down the food while enzymes (pepsin) help break down proteins

Main enzymes we talked about in class (amylase, lipase, pepsin)

• End in –ASE

 Enzyme – optimal levels?  Factors that affect enzyme function (temperature, pH)

1. Pepsin - best at low pH MULTIPLE CHOICE stomach acid

2. Trypsin - best at mid pH (6-8) small intestine

• Energy added at higher temperatures → enzyme activity increases

• Chemical bonds = too weak to maintain enzyme’s shape, change in structure

- 4 Stages of Food Processing

1.Ingestion – taking in or eating food

2.Digestion- mechanical or chemical

3.Absorption – from digestive to circulatory

4.Elimination – removal of waste

• (carnivores vs. herbivores/ omnivores)

nergy requirements differ for people how? Pregnat women, men, growing people

Influential factors:

• Age: growing children needmore than adults

• Gender: Men have more requirements than women, exception of pregnant women

• Occupation: More demanding jobs may require more energy

• Climate: cold climates require more energy than warm climates

• ACTUAL AMOUNT → Basal Metabolic Rate (calories needed for body to function)

FOOD → energy, growth repair, insulation, health

Parts of Digestive System and functions of organs, glands, ducts, sphincters and valves

Functions of Saliva:

•chemical breakdown of starch to maltose

•moistens food

•lubricates food

Salivary Glands:

a. sublingual (smallest glands- under tongue)

b. submandibular (at lower jaw level)

c. parotid (biggest – cheek level)

• Glands in the lining of the esophagus produce mucus which keeps the passage moist and aids in swallowing

Ducts:

• Carry bile between organs

Sphincters: MULTIPLE CHOICE

• When the food reaches the opening of the stomach, it must pass through a sphincter called the “esophageal” or “cardiac” sphincter

• The closing of this sphincter, after food passes, prevents acid reflux (food coming up from stomach into esophagus)

• The pyloric sphincter controls amount of food moving into the small intestine from the stomach

• Pathway of food

Mouth: Chews food and mixes it with saliva

Salivary glands: Produces saliva which contains a starch digesting enzyme called salivary amylase

Pharynx: Swallows the chewed food mixed with saliva called bolus

Esophagus: Moves the bolus to the stomach 

Stomach: Mixes and churns food with gastric juices that contain acid and protein-digesting enzyme called pepsin creating chyme.

Liver: Makes bile which aids in digestion and absorption of fat 

Pancreas: Releases bicarbonate to neutralize intestinal contents; produces enzymes that digest carbohydrates, proteins and fats

Gallbladder: Stores bile and releases it into small intestine when needed

Small intestine (Duodenum - Jejunum - Ileum) : Digests food and absorbs nutrients into blood and lymph 

Large intestine (Cecum - Ascending Colon - Transverse Colon - Descending Colon - Sigmoid Colon) : Absorbs water and some vitamins and minerals home to intestinal bacteria; passes waste material 

Rectum: Where the waste is stored before it leaves the body 

Anus: Opens to allow waste to leave the body 

-Physical characteristics of organs

• Mesentery: membrane keeps organs in place

• Rugae: folds in stomach 

• Villi: finger-like projections help absoprtion

-Peristalsis 

• Wave-like muscular contractions (esophagus)

• Enzymes at different locations of digestive system and insulin

• Insulin: hormone made from pancreas to maintain glucose levels)

Digestive System Disorders (see textbook and handout / chart)

(Peptic ulcers, hepatitis, cirrhosis (reasons), Wilson’s disease, Galactosemia, diabetes (3 types),

lactose intolerance, celiac, appendicitis, hemochromatosis, gallstones, pancreatic or colon

cancer, diverticulosis and inflammatory bowel diseases such as: Chron’s, ulcers)

Peptic Ulcers:

Hepatitis:

• Affects the liver

• Liver is inflamed by heavy alcohol use, toxins, certain medications, or certain medical conditions

• Symptoms: pain and bloating in the belly area, dark urine, etc.

• Treated by medications

Cirrhosis: 

• Affects the liver

• Caused by heavy alcohol use, too much intake of fatty foods, obesity or diabetes, or genetics

• Symptoms: fatigue, nausea, etc.

• There are medications for this or cut off alcohol intake

Wilson’s disease: a genetic disorder that prevents the body from getting rid of extra copper. A small amount of copper obtained from food is needed to stay healthy, but too much copper is poisonous. In Wilson's disease, copper builds up in the liver, brain, eyes, and other organs. Over time, high copper levels can cause life-threatening organ damage.

Galactosemia: 

• When people are unable to fully breakdown the simple sugar, galactose

• If a galactic infant is given milk, unmetabolized milk sugars can build up and damage the liver, eyes, brains, etc.

Diabetes: 

Type 1 - insulin-producing cells of the pancreas are destroyed by the immune system and no longer produce insulin. Mostly diagnosed in children, teens and adults.

Type 2 - body doesn’t make enough insulin or it is unable to properly use insulin. Mostly diagnosed after age 40.

Gestational - can develop during pregnancy. It may go away after giving birth or the woman may develop type 2 diabetes .

lactose intolerance:

• Unable to digest lactose

• Affects the small intestine

• Symptoms: pains in the stomach

Celiac disease:

• Affects the small intestine

• Caused by genetics or an abnormal immune system reaction to gluten

• Unable to digest gluten(wheat)

• Can be fixed through a gluten-free diet

Appendicitis: 

Appendix blocked and infected

Hemochromatosis: 

Iron build up

Gallstones: 

• Affects the gallbladder

• Caused by intake of too much salt or too much cholesterol

• Symptoms: nausea, fever, etc. 

• Can be fixed by surgery 

pancreatic or colon cancer: 

• No signs or symptoms in early stages

• When tumour grows in size, it make cause discomfort in upper adbdomen

• Symptoms: pain/discomfort in stomach area/upper back, weight loss, bloated feeling, nausea etc.

• Bile duct blockage → jaundice

Crohn's:

• A type of inflammatory bowel disease

• Causes swelling of the tissues in your digestive tract

• Symptoms: abdominal pain, severe diarrhea, weight loss, malnutrition, etc.

Ulcers: 

• stomach lining being broken down and becomes irritated by gastric acid

• Symptoms: sores in the stomach, stomach lining, esophagus, or upper small intestine,

• Causes peptic ulcers

• Treated by diagnostic tests

• 1. Labelling the Respiratory System and understanding the functions of parts

* upper and lower respiratory parts

UPPER: nasal/ oral passageway, pharynx, glottis, larynx, and trachea

Nostrils or Mouth

• Nostrils → bones called “turbinates” increase the surface area of air passing

• The epithelial lining of the nasal chamber and the turbinate bones are well supplied with capillaries which serve to warm incoming air and increase its relative humidity

• It is better to breathe through the nose → tiny hairs filter air, “cilia” and it is also warmed

Pharynx 

• alimentary canal that connects the mouth and nasal cavity to the larynx and esophagus

Glottis

• the opening of the trachea which conducts air to the lungs

Epiglottis

•  a flap like structure that helps prevent food from entering the trachea thereby protecting the glottis.

Larynx

•  “voice box” – houses the two folded structure of the vocal cords which are held securely in place by cartilaginous material

• Breathing normally = large gap b/w the 2 cords

• Speaking = muscles contract + bring cords closer together, cords vibrate because of air (short - high, long - low)

Trachea 

•  “windpipe”

• Supported by semicircular cartilage rings so there is no collapsing or interference with the passage of food down the esophagus

NOTE: nasal + passages of the upper respiratory tract are lined with ciliated cells that secrete mucus and trap foreign particles (dust, bacteria..) The beating of the cilia helps to propel this material back into the nose and throat where it can be expelled by coughing or sneezing

LOWER: bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli 

Bronchi

• Two smaller branches that come off of the trachea and enter into the lungs (left and right)

• They are lined with ciliated mucus membrane

Bronchioles

• network of finer tubes that is subdivided from the bronchi and that also have ciliated mucous membrane

• branch into the alveoli

Alveoli

• Grape like cluster of tiny sacs which are always moist

• wall of the sac = one cell thick and is adjacent to a network of tiny capillaries which are the site for the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide.

• bronchioles and alveoli are kept together by elastic connective tissue

NOTE: In simple facilitated diffusion, oxygen is transported across the alveolar membrane by the help of a protein-based molecule in the alveolar cell wall.

Lobes

• Each lung is divided into lobes (3 lobes on right side and 2 lobes on left side – to accommodate space for the heart)

Pleura

• Two layered membranes that protects and lubricates the lungs

→ Pleurisy: When the pleura becomes inflamed, a secondary infection can happen

(i.e. pneumonia). It can be painful and require prompt medical attention.

 Diaphragm

• strong wall of muscle that separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity.

• 2. Mechanics of breathing (inspiration/ expiration) – diaphragm and intercostal muscles

• 2 MUSCLES used to control air pressure in lungs

3. Intercostal Muscles (found between ribs)

4. Diaphragm

Inspiration: Diaphragm contracts (moves down), rib cage expands, rib muscles contract, air enters lungs

• Air pressure in lungs lower than in external environment, volume of air increases

Expiration: Diaphragm relaxes (moves up), rib cage gets smaller, rib muscles relax, air leaves lungs

• Air pressure in lungs greater than in external environment, volume of air decreases

• 3. Spirometry - labelling different areas of the graph – solving word problems

• Volumes (inspiratory reserve volume + tidal volume + expiratory reserve volume = vital capacity) (vital capacity + residual= total lung capacity)

• ways of Improving lung volumes

1. Cardiovascular Activities (walking, running, jogging, rowing, swimming)

• The rate of breathing increases to compensate for the oxygen demand, thereby increasing lung capacity to a certain extent.

2. Breathing Exercises

• Deep breathing techniques, regular basis 20-30 min

3. Pranayama

• Yoga, breathing technique 

4. Wind Instruments

• Increases lung capacity, helps teach how to control breathing, proper diaphragm breathing technique

5. High Altitude Training

• Higher lung capacity and red blood cell count, 10-15 days, increases stamina/endurance

6. Diet and Lifestyle

• A diet rich in antioxidants, selenium, vitamin C and E and beta carotene, whole grains, nuts, wheat germ, vegetable oil, dark colored fruits and vegetables

• Good food sources include: mangoes, carrots, apricots, sweet potatoes, peppers, cantaloupes etc..

• differences of lung volumes amongst individuals

• Age: Younger people have larger lung capacity than old people 

• Gender: Men typically have larger lung capacity than women

• Body composition

• Ethnicity

• Habits: Smoker has smaller lung capacity than non-smoker, athlete has bigger lung capacity than non-athlete, musician…

• 4. Movement of air with concentration (high to low)

Factors that affect diffusion:

1) Area of cell membrane (greater exchange with greater area)

2) Concentration difference (greater exchange with greater concentration difference)

3)Diffusion distance (greater exchange with smaller diffusion distance)

• 5. Control of Breathing ( medulla oblongata – chemoreceptors – stretch receptors )

• OTHER FACTORS → volume of air, concentration of CO2 and oxygen

Medulla oblongata → controls the rate of breathing

• sends out nerve impulses to make muscles of the rib cage and diaphragm move faster

•  firing of nerve impulses happens regularly, producing a rhythmic pattern of inhalation and exhalation. 

• average breathing rate for adults is between 14-20 breaths per minute. Newborns have approximately 40 breaths per minute

Chemoreceptors

• In blood vessels (carotid artery + aorta)

• Respond to oxygen pressure in blood

• send stimuli to the medulla oblongata, → increase the breathing rate

Stretch Receptors

• In walls of the alveoli

•  fire impulses that travel to the medulla oblongata to stop inhalation

• Used when hyperventilating, when the lungs and alveoli expand and stretch

• 6. Autonomic Nervous System (Sympathetic vs. Parasympathetic)

Sympathetic

• “fight or flight responses”

• Increases speed heart rate, saliva flow, and perspiration

• Speeds up

Parasympathetic

• Counters the effects caused in moments of stress/stimulus

• slows heart rate, dilates blood vessels, and relaxes involuntary smooth muscle fibres

• Slows down

• 7. (Gas Exchange) CO2 in plasma (+ water) ----- carbonic acid ----- bicarbonate ions – CO2

•  some CO2 dissolves in plasma, some attaches to hemoglobin

• most CO2 reacts with water in cytoplasm 

--> makes carbonic acid (H2CO3)

--> Carbonic Anhydrase = enzyme converts carbon dioxide and water into carbonic acid

--> becomes H+ and HCO3- (bicarbonate) ions, which are later changed back into CO2

- EXTRA H+ ions in RBC bind to hemoglobin, help remove oxygen

• Formula for Respiration

• Internal Respiration: oxygenated blood → body cells

• Cellular Respiration: the cells use up oxygen and release carbon dioxide → body cells will have a lower concentration of oxygen than the blood, so oxygen will always diffuse from the blood into the body cells. The reverse occurs for the movement of carbon dioxide from the body cells into the blood

C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O (glucose + oxygen -> carbon dioxide + water)

•  oxyhemoglobin

• Oxygen attached to hemoglobin

• at the body tissues, oxygen is released from hemoglobin and enters (going from an area of high concentration in the blood to an area of low concentration in the tissues)

•  Respiratory Diseases

1. Asthma

- long-term

-  airways may suddenly narrow

 - due to allergen, cold air, exercise, or emotional stress

- need for inhaler/bronchodilator

- other causes: reaction to food (infancy), caused by allergens inhaled (10-20 y.o.), due to infection of some sort (over 40 y.o.)

SYMPTOMS: wheezing, shortness of breath, chest tightness, and coughing

2. Hypoxia

- "high altitude sickness"

- oxygen level in body tissue is too low

- caused by insufficient oxygen delivery to body tissue, low oxygen content in blood

SYMPTOMS: change in breathing/heart rate, blue skin, confusion

3. Bronchitis

- inflammation of the mucous membranes of the bronchial tubes

- causes a cough that produces sputum (phlegm)

- due to viral or bacterial infection

SYMPTOMS: runny nose, slight fever and chills, aching muscles/pain, dry painful cough which becomes less distressing when phlegm begins to appear

4. Pneumonia

- inflammation of lungs

- build-up of fluid in alveoli

- commonly caused by bacteria

SYMPTOMS: fever, chills, cough,

difficulty breathing and rusty phlegm

5. Emphysema

- caused by smoking, air pollution, chemical fumes

- abnormal increase in air spaces in tissue, specifically the lungs

- ALVEOLI --> lose elasticity, grow larger and function less efficiently

- Blood overloads with CO2 

- mucus plug ups the bronchioles

SYMPTOMS: shortness of breath, wheezing, bluish skin and

a chronic cough that brings up sputum (phlegm/mucus)

6. Laryngitis

- inflammation of larynx because of overuse, irritation, infection

- typically caused by temporary viral infection

SYMPTOMS: Hoarseness, weak voice/voice loss, sore throat, dry throat/cough, tickling sensation in throat

7. Chronic Bronchitis

- excessive mucus in bronchi

- in middle-aged/older person with long smoking history, risk increases with other factors (exposure to dust, toxic fumes)

- recurring cough that produces thick sputum

- bronchial walls later thicken and number of mucous glands increase

- treated with antibiotics and bronchodilators 

SYMPTOMS: shortness of breath and wheezing

TO DO:

- drink fluids to thin out bronchial mucus

- use a steam vapor

- stay indoors when periods of high pollution

- avoid cough suppressants + inhaling cold air

Circulatory System: 

Functions

• Transportation O2 and CO2

• Distribution of nutrients and transport waste

• Maintain body temperature

• Circulation of hormones

• Fight Infection

• Healing

The heart

• How many chambers? What are the names? Describe characteristics of the atrium and ventricles.

• 4 CHAMBERS

1. Right Atrium

2. Right Ventricle

• Atria are thin-walled and collect blood

3. Left Atrium

4. Left Ventricle

• Ventricles are thick-walled and pump blood

• What is the function of the septum?

• The septum separates the right side of the heart from the left side

• Prevent oxygenated blood from mixing with deoxygenated blood

• Where is oxygenated blood? Where is deoxygenated blood?

RIGHT SIDE: deoxygenated blood

LEFT SIDE: oxygenated blood

• What is a septal defect? What problems occur?

• Hole in the septum can happen in the area that divides the atriums or in the area that divides the ventricles

• Person = born with this defect

• PROBLEM: two blood types mixing

• Can be fixed with surgery (synthetic patch)

• What is the membrane of the heart called? What is its function?

• Pericardium: contains liquid to reduce friction as the heart beats

• Pericardial Fluid → moist, better contraction

• Functions: Protects the heart against infections

• Can you trace the flow of blood through the heart and back out?

1. Superior Vena Cava + Inferior Vena Cava

2. Right Atrium

3. Tricuspid Valve.

4. Right Ventricle

5. Pulmonary Valve

6. Pulmonary Artery

7. Lungs

8. Right + Left Pulmonary Veins

9. Left Atrium

10. Bicuspid Valve/Mitral Valve

11. Left Ventricle

12. Aortic Valve

13. Aorta

14. Body

• What are the four main valves in the heart? What is their function?

Valves → allow blood to flow in 1 direction, prevent backflow, regulate amount of blood flowing

• What makes the pulmonary artery and pulmonary vein different from other arteries and veins?

Pulmonary Artery - carries deoxygenated blood from right ventricle of heart → lungs

Pulmonary Vein - carry oxygenated blood from vein → heart

• Explain the difference between: pulmonary, cardiac and systemic circulation of blood

Pulmonary – pathway of blood from heart to lungs and back to the heart

Cardiac – pathway of blood through the heart

Systemic – pathway of blood as it flows from the heart to the rest of the body and back to the heart

• Review physical differences between artery and vein

• Why is a capillary one cell thick?

• One cell thick →because of gas exchange, make it easier

• Surround alveoli

• allows nutrients and oxygen to travel through the bloodstream and diffuse into the tissues

• Explain the following about blood pressure:

a. the device name to measure blood pressure

• “Sphygmomanometer” placed on brachial artery

b. the systole vs. diastole readings

Systolic pressure (the pressure when the heart beats)  

Diastolic pressure (the pressure when the heart relaxes between beats)

c. hypertension vs. hypotension 

d. What is the name of the artery where blood pressure is measured?

• Brachial Artery

• Starts in your upper arm, just below your shoulder, and runs down through the crease in front of your elbow

• What is the average pulse rate?

• Pulse → throbbing of arteries (carotid artery or radial artery) while compressing the artery against a bone

• Your pulse/ heart beat is roughly 70-72 beats per minute

• What does the “lub” “dub” sound mean?

“LUB”

• Atrioventricular Valve

→Closing of the Tricuspid + Bicuspid (Mitral) Valves

→Opening of pulmonary and aortic valve

“DUB”

→closing of the pulmonary and aortic valve

→ opening of the tricuspid and bicuspid valve

• Define “atherosclerosis”

• Arteriosclerosis - several diseases in which the arterial wall thickens and loses its elasticity

• Fatty deposits/plaques form in arteries, clogging and narrowing them

→ Causes reduction in the amount of blood flow.

• Plaques = made of mainly cholesterol, may break away from the arterial wall and travel through the blood stream 

→ could block blood flow through a smaller vessel

• The blood clot may lead to a stroke in the brain or heart attack in the heart

• What are some symptoms of a heart attack?

• Lightheadedness

• Pain/Discomfort

• Cold Sweat

• Trouble breathing/shortness of breath

ANGINA - Temporary pain or tightness that starts in the chest and sometimes radiates to other upper body parts. 

• caused by a shortage of oxygen and nutrients to the cardiac muscle. It can be brought on by extra demands on the heart (from exercise, stress, exposure to cold or wind).

• Which gender is most at risk for heart attacks?

• WOMEN

• More risk for those women who smoke, have diabetes or menopause

• What causes a heart murmur?

• The improper closing of one of the heart valves so there is a backflow of blood into the heart. It can be heard using a stethoscope as a Lub-dub-swoosh (semi lunar valve improperly closes) or Lub-swoosh-dub (AV valve improperly closes).

• If life-threatening, surgery is done to replace valve

• What does an ECG measure?

• ELECTROCARDIOGRAM measures electrical activity of the heart

• Normal EGC - heart rate 60-100 BPM

• Used to help diagnose heart disease + monitor how well different heart medications are working

• EGC performed if in Emergency room → chest pain, shortness of breath 

• The ECG is used extensively in the diagnosis of heart disease, from congenital heart disease in infants to heart attacks

• 

• Trace the electric conductivity in the heart (from the pacemaker)

1. Sinoatrial node (SA node) = natural pacemaker (gives electrical charges) - right atrium

2. Atrioventricular node (AV node) - between atria and ventricles

3. AV Bundle or Bundle of His - ventricles

4. Purkinje Plexus/ fibers - ventricles

• What is the importance of the Medulla Oblongata?

• Triggered by high amounts of CO2 and sends impulses along the nervous system 

• Releases chemical “Noradrenaline” → chemical released naturally by the nerve cells. It produces wide-ranging effects on many areas of the body and is often referred to as a 'fight or flight' chemical = the body's reaction to stressful situations.

• Does the Parasympathetic or the Sympathetic stimulate heart beat?

Sympathetic - Noradrenaline → increased heart rate, increased blood pressure, dilation of pupils + air passages in the lungs and narrowing of blood vessels in non-essential organs. This enables the body to perform well in stressful situations. **happens when cellular respiration rate increases and CO2 levels increase in blood + muscle cells

→ Increase heart rate = increase in blood pressure, blood pumped faster 

→ Receptors in the blood vessels sense an increase and signal Medulla Oblongata which will then send an impulse along the nervous system

Parasympathetic - Acetylcholine helps the brain send nerve impulses to lessen heart tissue contraction. As a result the SA node (Sinoatrial node) slows down and heart rate comes back to normal.

Target Heart Rate

220 - age (during exercise)

Blood

• What are the different components of the blood?

1. Plasma 

•  the fluid portion

• ~ 55% of blood 

• made up water, + dissolved gases, proteins, sugars, vitamins, minerals and waste products.

2. Blood cells

• the solid or “formed” portion which is made up of different kinds of cells

• 45% of blood is made up of these three types of cells: Red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets

• What are the main functions of red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and plasma?

• What causes sickle cell anemia?

Anemia - The lack of iron —> decreased levels of hemoglobin in the RBCs. This lowers the red blood cell ability to carry and deliver oxygen to the body cells. Fatigue and lack of energy are common symptoms due to iron deficiency.

Sickle Cell Anemia - An autosomal recessive genetic disease characterized by red blood cells that assume an abnormal, rigid, sickle shape. Sickling decreases the cells' flexibility and results in a risk of various complications such as severe pain in joints.

AFFECTS RBC →

Hemoglobin stick together, making sickcle shape

Pain in oxygen starved tissues, blockage in spleen → dangerous infections

• Risk of stroke

• Cell survives 10-20 days, constant depleted supply of blood cells

• Need 2 copies one from each parent → pass on sickle cell gene

• One parent only → person is carrier will not get malaria (heterozygous advantage)

• What is leukemia?

Uncontrolled reproduction (cancer) of the WBC resulting in non-functioning immature white blood cells. Crowding out of the RBCs also occurs due to increased white blood cell numbers. → chemotherapy as treatment

• What is haemophilia?

Inability to clot the blood or slow clotting of blood. It is inherited as a “X” sex linked disease and cannot be cured.

• Bleed longer than you should, don’t need a cut in order to bleed –cause bruise or pain in joints

• What are the four blood types?

1. A +-

2. B +-

3. AB +-

4. O +- (O negative, can give to everyone – O positive, only go to positive)

• Why is blood type O and AB very important?

AB - universal recipient, has no antibodies and can receive from all

O - universal donor, has no markers, can donate to all types

• What is an antigen and what is an antibody?

Antigen - a toxin or other foreign substance which induces an immune response in the body, allow body to create a defense against future invaders (EX: bacteria, viruses)

Antibody - circulate in your body once created to identify, attack, and destroy the same type of antigens if they enter the body again

• What happens when the wrong blood mixes?

• Transfusion reaction can do organ damage, fights blood given to you

• clumping or agglutination of blood cells 

• Antibodies react with the red blood cells causing them to clump

• Agglutinated red blood cells can clog blood vessels, blocking circulation and causing severe damage to the body

• Immune system attacks RBC

• How is someone positive and someone negative with Rhesus factor?

• carry the Rh protein are called “Rh positive”

• without the Rh protein are called “Rh negative”

• What risks does a Rh negative mom have on a Rh positive baby?

• Rh antigens from the fetus could enter the mother’s blood

• Causes mother to produce anti-Rh antibodies

• If another Rh+ pregnancy occurs, her anti- Rh antibodies → cross placenta and damage fetal RBCs

1. Rh immunoglobulin (Rhlg) is a medication:

• stops the body from making antibodies if it has not

already made them;

• can prevent severe fetal anemia in a future pregnancy

2. RhIg is given as an injection (shot).

• Can you label the parts of a heart?

• What does atherosclerosis look like?

• buildup of fats, cholesterol and other substances in and on the artery walls

• Plaque can cause arteries to narrow, blocking blood flow

• The plaque can also burst, leading to a blood clot

Cardiac Output= stroke volume (blood pumped in 1 heartbeat) x heart rate (beats/min)