Pysch unit 7 pt.1

• Motivation: The process that initiates, guides, and sustains goal-oriented behavior. It can be intrinsic (coming from within) or extrinsic (from external factors).

• Instinct: An innate, typically fixed pattern of behavior that is characteristic of a species. Often driven by genetic programming.

• Drive-Reduction Theory: A theory suggesting that physiological needs create an aroused state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need, thereby reducing the drive.

• Homeostasis: The maintenance of a stable internal environment (e.g., body temperature, hydration, blood sugar levels) despite external changes.

• Incentives: Positive or negative stimuli that motivate behavior, such as rewards or punishments.

• Yerkes-Dodson Law: A principle that suggests there is an optimal level of arousal for performance; too little or too much arousal can impair performance.

• Esteem: The need for self-esteem, respect, and recognition from others. It is one of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.

• Self-Actualization: The desire to become the most that one can be; the realization of one’s full potential.

• Self-Transcendence: The pursuit of goals beyond the self, often in service to others or a higher purpose. It’s the highest level in Maslow’s hierarchy, beyond self-actualization.

Biological and Psychological Factors

• Glucose: The primary sugar used by the body for energy, often related to hunger and blood sugar levels.

• Set Point: The body’s natural weight range that it attempts to maintain through metabolic processes and appetite regulation.

• Basal Metabolic Rate: The rate at which the body uses energy while at rest to maintain vital functions (breathing, circulation, etc.).

• Insulin: A hormone produced by the pancreas that helps regulate blood glucose levels by promoting glucose absorption into cells.

• Ghrelin: A hormone that stimulates hunger, often referred to as the "hunger hormone."

• Orexin: A neurotransmitter that plays a role in regulating wakefulness and appetite, particularly linked to hunger.

• Leptin: A hormone produced by fat cells that helps to regulate energy balance by inhibiting hunger and increasing energy expenditure.

Sexual and Hormonal Terms

• Sexual Response Cycle: The four stages of physiological responses during sexual activity—excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.

• Refractory Period: A period following orgasm in which an individual is unable to achieve another orgasm, typically longer in males.

• Estrogens: A group of hormones that promote the development and maintenance of female characteristics in the body and are involved in the menstrual cycle.

• Testosterone: A hormone that plays a key role in male reproductive development, sexual drive, and muscle mass.

Psychological and Social Needs

• Affiliation Need: The need for social connection and belonging, a fundamental human motivation.

• Autonomy: The need to feel in control of one's actions and decisions, often associated with personal freedom.

• Competence: The need to feel capable and effective in one's actions, often tied to achievement and mastery.

• Cyber-Ostracism: The experience of being excluded or ignored in online interactions or communities.

• Narcissism: A personality trait characterized by an inflated sense of self-importance, a need for admiration, and a lack of empathy.

Emotion and Theories of Emotion

• Emotions: Complex psychological states that involve physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, and cognitive appraisal.

• Schacter-Singer Two-Factor Theory: A theory of emotion suggesting that emotion is based on physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation of that arousal.

• Zajonc/LeDoux Theory: A theory suggesting that some emotions, especially basic ones, can be processed without conscious thought or cognition, directly through the brain’s emotional pathways.

• Emotional Arousal: A physiological response that occurs in reaction to an emotional stimulus, often involving changes in heart rate, respiration, and hormonal activity.

Universal Expressions and Feedback

• Ekman’s Universal Expressions: A theory that suggests that certain facial expressions of emotion are universally recognized across cultures, such as happiness, sadness, anger, surprise, fear, and disgust.

• “Duchenne Smile”: A genuine smile that involves the movement of both the mouth and the eyes, signaling true happiness or enjoyment.

• Facial Feedback Effect: The idea that facial expressions can influence emotional experiences, meaning that smiling can make you feel happier, and frowning can make you feel sadder.

Stress and Health

• Stress: A psychological and physiological response to perceived challenges or threats.

• Stressors: Events or conditions that cause stress, such as work pressures, exams, or life changes.

• General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) (Selye): A three-phase model of the body’s response to stress: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.

• Tend-and-Befriend Response: A stress response where people (especially women) seek social support and nurturing behavior to cope with stress, rather than just fight or flee.

Immune System and Disease

• Lymphocytes (B & T): White blood cells that play key roles in the immune system. B cells produce antibodies, while T cells attack infected or cancerous cells.

• Macrophage: A type of white blood cell that engulfs and digests pathogens and other foreign substances.

• Natural Killer (NK) Cells: A type of immune cell that targets and destroys abnormal cells, such as virus-infected or cancerous cells.

• HIV and AIDS: HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) is a virus that attacks the immune system, and AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome) is the final stage of HIV infection, where the immune system is severely weakened.

• Coronary Heart Disease: A condition where the blood vessels supplying the heart become blocked or narrowed, often due to the buildup of plaque.

• Type A: A personality type characterized by high levels of competitiveness, urgency, and hostility, which has been associated with an increased risk of heart disease.

• Type B: A personality type characterized by a more relaxed, easy-going, and less competitive demeanor.

Psychological Resilience and Well-Being

• Explanatory Style: The way individuals explain the causes of events in their lives, with optimistic people attributing negative events to external, temporary causes and pessimistic people to internal, stable causes.

• Optimism: A general tendency to expect positive outcomes and interpret life events in an optimistic way.

• Pessimism: A tendency to expect negative outcomes and interpret life events negatively.

• Biofeedback: A technique that allows individuals to monitor and control physiological processes such as heart rate, muscle tension, and blood pressure through feedback from monitoring devices.

• Mindfulness: A mental state achieved by focusing on the present moment in a non-judgmental manner, often used to reduce stress and promote well-being.

• Faith Factor: The positive effects of religious faith and spirituality on health, including stress reduction and improved coping mechanisms.

• Feel-Good, Do-Good Phenomenon: The tendency for people who are in a good mood to be more helpful and generous toward others.

• Positive Psychology: A branch of psychology that focuses on studying and promoting positive emotions, well-being, and personal strengths.

• Subjective Well-Being: A person’s self-reported assessment of their happiness or life satisfaction.

• Adaptation-Level Phenomenon: The tendency to judge new experiences based on past experiences, leading to a shifting baseline of happiness or satisfaction.

• Relative Deprivation: The perception that one is worse off than others, leading to feelings of dissatisfaction or resentment.