Chapter 9 Part 1: Islamic Empires of Western Asia and Africa, 600-1258

caliph: successor, exercises political authority b/c muslim religious community had its own government and army

Jihad: meaning to “struggle” or “effort".” it can refer to personal, spiritual struggle or self-improvement or a broader struggle to uphold and defend Islam, which may include social, political, or military efforts

Hajj: Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca that Muslims must perform at least once in their lifetime if they’re able

Mecca: Islam’s holiest city, located in Saudi Arabia. birthplace of Prophet Muhammad and home to the Kaaba, sacred site that Muslims face during prayer. Mecca is the destination of the hajj, the islamic pilgrimage

Medina: second holiest city in Islam, also in Saudi Arabia. It’s where Prophet Muhammad migrated to (the Hijra) and where he’s buried. home to Al-Masjid an-Nabawi (the Prophet’s Mosque), an important religious site for Muslims

Rashindun Caliphate: (The Rightly Guided Caliphs)

Pre-Islamic Arabia

• largely desert with some fertile regions, Yemen and along major cities like Mecca and Medina

• crossroads for trade between Persian and Byzantine Empires

• raised sheep, goats, horses, and camels

• no centralized government, instead had tribal confederations

• Quraysh (alt. Kuraish) = most powerful people who controlled key cities like Mecca

The Life and Times of Muhammad

• Muhammad was born c. 570 CE in Mecca to a family of merchants

• at 25, married Khadijah

• The First Revelation (610 CE): Muhammad had a vision in the Cave of Hira, where the angel Jibreel (Gabriel) commanded him to “Recite” = foundation of Islam

Early Spread of Islam

• messages of monotheism challenged Mecca’s polytheistic values

• Quraysh imposed total economic and social boycott on the Muslims and Muhammad’s tribe = lasted 3 years

• Sumayyah bin Khabbat was tortured and ultimately killed, his son was also tortured

Fleeing to Abyssinia (615 CE)

• refuge in the Christian kingdom of Akusm (Ethiopia), small group

• Q demands for their extradition failed

• Negus, who was Christian later converted to Islam

• early muslims fled to Yemen, Syria, and Byzantium

Year of Sorrow:

• Muha lost both Khadijah and Abu Talib, leaving him vulnerable to increased hostility

• Q plotted to assasinate Muh a lot

• 662 CE, they intended to kill him in his sleep, prompting him to move to Medina with Abu Bakr

From Medina:

• Medina = new political/social order, uniting Muslims, Jews, and some polytheists under New Constitution of Medina

  • set laws for coexistence, religious freedom, and mutual defense, solidifying his role as both a religious

  • built army to fight against persecution

Battle of Badr (624 CE)

• Muha forces defeat Q

• bulk of his forces were infantry v. 1,000 Q forces

Battle of Uhud (625 CE)

• battle of Mount Uhad, in Medina

• few losses on both ends

Battle of the Trench (627 CE)

• first use of trenches in warfare

Expanding Islam

• islam continued to grow after taking Medina in 630 CE

• rulers from other regions opposed his reign but were quickly crushed

• Arabian tribes converted to Islam, Muha sent envoys to spread Islam and Arabia was under his influence

The Death of Muhammad

• 632 CE, Farewell Pilgrimage, delivering his famous sermon emphasizing unity, equality, and adherence to Islam principles

• passed away in Medina later that year, leading to the selection of Abu Bakr as the first caliph

Succession Disputed and Assasinations

1. Abu Bakr (632 - 634 CE)

2. Umar inb al-Khattab (634 - 644 CE)

   • islamic empire expanded rapidly, conquering large territories, including Levant, Egypt, Persia, and parts of North Africa

   • implemented administrative and legal reforms, including establishment of the Islamic calender

3. Uthman ibn Affan (644 - 656 CE)

   • third caliph, best known for commissioning the compilation and standardization of the Qur’ān

   • his rule saw further expansion of the empire, but also increasing political and social unrest

4. Ali ibn Abi Talib (656 - 661 CE)