Roots: Lysis-loosening/splitting. Iso-equal. Homos-the same. Hetero-different or other.

Genetics

Homeostasis: How animals maintain stability in bodily systems while adjusting to outside changes.

Homozygous: Two matching genes in a pair inherited from both parents.

Heterozygous: Two different genes in a pair inherited from both parents.

Polygenic Inheritance: Inheritance of a trait controlled by more than 1 gene (usually 3+).

Chemistry

Coupled Reactions: Reaction’s products are used to make another reaction occur.

Electronegativity: A measure of an atom's ability to attract shared electrons to itself,e.g., oxygen is more electronegative than hydrogen so it hogs electrons in a hydrogen bond.

Polarity: When molecules contain two distinct and opposite poles that can attract or repel each other with positive or negative energy.

Monomer: A molecule that can combine with others of the same kind to form a polymer.

Polymer: Molecule made mostly up of the same units/monomers.

Isotope: Elements with the same atomic number but differ in their atomic mass.

Isomer: Molecules that have the same chemical formula but have distinct structures.

Atomic Mass: Number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.

Atomic Number: Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.

Water and Other Liquids

Cohesion: Water molecules sticking together

Adhesion: Water molecules sticking to other surfaces.

Capillary Action: The process of a liquid flowing in a narrow space in opposition to or at least without the assistance of any external forces like gravity. E.g., trees use it to get water up to high leaves and branches. This happens because of the attraction to the tube the water is against (e.g., putting a straw in water some water goes up).

Specific Heat: The temperature required to raise a substance 1 degree. Water has a high specific heat, so it’s harder to raise it 1 degree in temperature (lower specific heat would be the opposite).

Surface Tension: The tendency of liquid surfaces at rest to shrink into the minimum surface area possible,e.g., water in a cup. The top of a liquid is not as random with movement as the bottom molecules. Because of hydrogen bonds, water has higher surface tension and is pulled to the middle of the water structure, e.g., water droplets are spherical.

Universal Solvent: Water can dissolve more substances than any other liquid.

Solute: The substance that is dissolved in a solution by a solvent.

Solvent The substance that dissolves the solute in a solution.

Solution: The mixture of a solvent and solute.

Hydrogen Bond: The bonding of an oxygen(O2 is partial  -) atom of one water molecule to another water molecule's hydrogen(H is partial +).

Hydrolysis: Any chemical reaction where a molecule of water breaks one or more chemical bonds, e.g., salt dissolving in water. Basically, water is the solvent that breaks down the solute in the solution.

Dehydration Reaction: The chemical reaction where a water molecule is eliminated from the reactant molecule. 

Dehydration Synthesis: The combination of two molecules with the elimination of water molecules,e.g., amino acids form peptide bonds by removing a water molecule.

Cell Structure + Systems

Cellular Respiration: All life forms use them to release energy stored in biological macromolecules, e.g., glucose. Oxygen is used in cellular respiration. Both use the pyruvates from glycolysis in their processes. Glucose is broken down to form ATP used for movement and reproduction, i.e., work. The pathways

Fermentation: Italics in cellular respiration are what they have in common. Lactic acid and ethanol are products.  

Glycolysis: All living things go through this process in which glucose (sugar) is partially broken down by cells in enzyme reactions that do not need oxygen. Occurring in the cytoplasm, it is split into 2 pyruvates and used to make energy(ATP). Phosphofructokinase is a necessary enzyme in this reaction. 

Krebs Cycle: Pyruvate goes through oxidation in the mitochondria first. A chain of reactions in a mitochondrion is used to make energy anaerobically in cellular respiration. It also produces CO2 + water. Uses the pyruvates from glycolysis.

Electron Transport Chain: All living things have some form of this. The process in which an electrochemical gradient is formed from an electron’s movement, by NADH and FADH2,  through 4 protein complexes(this is a coupled reaction since the electron movement facilitates ATP creation). It usually occurs in the inner membrane of mitochondria but also happens in chloroplasts and the plasma membrane of some cells. Needs to have the membrane separating the matrix and inner membrane space of the mitochondrion. The active transport of the protons/hydrogen ions creates the gradient. Proton flow through ATP synthase by chemiosmosis(ions through semipermeable membrane) drives ATP creation. Similar to the Light Phase of photosynthesis in plants. 38 ATP from 1 glucose (total, not net).

Oxidative Phosphorylation: Making ATP from the stored energy of the proton gradient (pretty much the result of ETC). NADH and FADH2 lose high energy electrons=oxidation. Phosphorylation is the addition of Pi, an inorganic phosphate, to ADP to make ATP. Decoupling from ETC refers to not using the proton gradient to make ATP. Heat is released instead and can help us regulate body temperature.

Ribosomes*: Protein factory of the cell made of RNA and protein. They can freely move in the cytoplasm or be attached to the Rough ER(which gets its name from the ribosomes on its surface). Ribosomes are larger in eukaryotes than prokaryotes. Translation Initiation: Ribosomes bind to mRNA, a copy of the gene from DNA. Elongation: They read the sequence of mRNA three nucleotides at a time (each set of three nucleotides is called a codon) and match each codon with the correct amino acid (the building blocks of proteins). Termination: Once the entire mRNA is read and the protein is fully assembled, the process ends, and the protein is released to go and perform its function in the cell.

Rough + Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum*: The Rough ER is called this because of the ribosomes on its surface. It is made up of folds and channels, and its main function is protein synthesis. It can fold proteins and add sugar groups (glycosylation). The Smooth ER has no ribosomes and is more tubular in structure. It is crucial for metabolizing carbohydrates, drugs, and toxins. Some other focuses are lipid production, and calcium ion storage(storage for calcium before release by hormones).

Golgi Apparatus: A factory where proteins received from the ER are further processed and sorted for transport to their eventual destinations: lysosomes, the plasma membrane, or secretion. They also create glycolipids and sphingomyelin.

Mitochondria: Membrane-bound organelle (cell organ) where the Krebs Cycle and Electron Transport Chain occur. This makes it the “powerhouse of the cell”, as it creates the most ATP for chemical reactions. The inner membrane has the most ATP creation + is less permeable without porins (proteins that allow small molecules to diffuse through a membrane). The outer membrane has enzymes and porins to allow proteins to get in and out (more permeable). Different amounts of mitochondria in different cells, e.g., the heart has 40% of its space while mature red blood cells have none. Also has calcium storage.

Lysosome: The digestive system and waste remover of the cell. Helps break down bacteria, food, or worn-out organelles. 

Vacuoles: In animal cells, they separate waste products from the rest of the cell, while in plants, they help balance water levels. It is for any kind of waste removal. Also refers to lysosome-like cells.

Chloroplasts: They produce energy through photosynthesis and oxygen-release processes, which sustain plant growth and crop yield. Thylakoids in the stroma of chloroplasts(fluid inside) contain lumen.

Endocytosis: The cell takes in substances by engulfing them with a vesicle that fuses with the cell membrane. Includes pinocytosis(drinking) and phagocytosis(eating). Takes in nutrients, and dangerous pathogens, and helps to eliminate old organelles.

Exocytosis: Removes toxins and waste products, communicates to other cells, or helps with cell growth by fusing vesicles to the cell membrane. There is constitutive and regulated exocytosis.

What molecules can pass through semipermeable membranes: Small hydrophobic molecules and gasses like oxygen and carbon dioxide cross membranes rapidly. Small polar molecules, such as water and ethanol, can also pass through membranes, but they do so more slowly. Impermeable to large charged polar molecules(glucose and amino acids) and ions.

Phospholipids: Molecules that make up a cell’s membrane. They have hydrophilic(water-loving) heads and hydrophobic tails. Water is attracted to the outside of the membrane while the non-polar interior stays dry.

Passive Transport: The substance moves with the concentration gradient(a form of energy).

Active Transport: The substance moves against the concentration gradient with ATP.

Secondary Active Transport: The substance moves against the concentration gradient with an electrochemical gradient.

Enzyme: Biological catalysts that speed up(catalyze) reactions, not start them. Tertiary structure to function and an active site where a specific substrate, a molecule that can interact with an enzyme, can fit. Names of processes can hint at what substrate is involved in a reaction. Enzymes end in -ase, e.g., sucrase is an enzyme that digests sucrose. Enzymes are not chemically changed by a reaction, making them reusable. It can aid in synthesis or digestion. The substrate must have a matching charge, polar or nonpolar, and shape to react with the enzyme. 

Photosynthesis: The conversion of light energy to chemical energy in plants, yet with only 6% efficiency. Plants, protists, and some bacteria go through this process. They need it to create glucose(consumers get it from what they eat). Has a chemical formula similar to aerobic cellular respiration- photosynthesis is 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2, while cellular respiration is C6H12O6 +6 O2 ——>6 CO2+ 6 H2O(formula seems reversed though this is not exactly true It). Different pigments in plants other than chlorophyll(reflects green light) reflect other wavelengths, so they appear that color. 

The Light phase of Photosynthesis: Happens in thylakoids in the stroma of chloroplasts. A stack of thylakoids is a granum, while multiple are grana. Creates oxygen by splitting water, NADPH(adds high energy electrons to reduce reaction), and ATP(energy currency). Mostly ATP production. Light is absorbed by chlorophyll pigments(usually chlorophyll a, 380-780nm). Similar to ETC. ATP is produced in the stroma. Proton gradient of high concentration is in the lumen. ADP+Pi=ATP(made by excited electrons). Photo. 2(has chlorophyll where photon hits)→Cytochrome b6f→Photo. 1→FNR→ATP Synthase. After 2 water molecules split, 1 oxygen is created. Protons and electrons are transferred to cytochrome in the lumen. Plastocyanin goes to photosystem 1. Photons energize electrons to go to FNR. NADPH is made after photons are transferred.

The Dark Phase of Photosynthesis: Does not require light(also called the Calvin Cycle). It happens in the stroma of the chloroplasts. CO2+ATP+NADPH→Glucose. CO2 enters through the stomata of the plant(usually under leaves). ATP(can’t be stored, so it’s turned into a carb) and NADPH accumulate in the stroma from the light phase of photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is the reverse of aerobic CR. CO2 fixation is phase 1, where it captures atmospheric CO2 by attaching it to RuBP by the Rubisco Enzyme. Splits into 3PG and goes into phase 2(CO2 reduction). Electrons + Energy are added to the molecule. G3P formed at the end of the phase by a series of reactions creating ADP and NADP+ too. 3 ATP are used to form RuBP. The cycle turns 6 times to form glucose molecules as it only adds 1 carbon molecule at a time. 

C3 Pathway: Most used plant pathway. CO2 is used to make a 3-carbon compound. Stomata of the plant are open during the day. 

C4 Pathway: CO2 used in a 4-carbon compound. It has more efficient water use than C3, but it’s more complex. Stomata are also used during the day. Guard cells around the stomata. 

CAM Pathway: Cacti are the most common example of this pathway. Stomata are opened at night to collect CO2 while keeping water in the plant. If done during the day, the plant would dehydrate. Also, cacti don’t have true leaves so photosynthesis occurs in their stems. 

Meiosis: Ensures the formation of haploid(one set of chromosomes, gametes=n=3) gametes in diploid(2 full sets/pairs of chromosomes that can differ in size, shape, info, and centromere location=2n=6) sexually reproducing organisms. Makes 4 daughter cells that are genetically different from the parent cells and each other. 

Steps: Meiosis 1- Prophase 1: The nuclear envelope dissolves, fibers form, and DNA coils up. Double chromosomes are created and pair up. The pairs share genetic info, i.e., non-sister chromatids exchange genetic info. Metaphase 1: The chromosomes line up in the center, still in pairs. Anaphase 1: The pairs separate at the centromeres and migrate to opposite sides of the cell. Telophase 1: Separate nuclei form and contain one double chromosome from each pair. Has half of the info the parent nucleus had. Cytokinesis splits the cells, but another round is needed and double chromosomes uncoil. It separates pairs of chromosomes.

Meiosis 2- Prophase 2: Repetition of prophase 1 in both cells. Metaphase 2: Double chromosomes line up in a single file in the center. Anaphase 2: Sister chromatids (halves of chromosomes) split at the centromeres, migrating to opposite sides of the cells. Telophase 2: Chromosomes uncoil, the nuclear envelope reappears, and there is one sister chromosome of each double chromosome in the cells after cytokinesis splits them into 4 haploid gametes(sister chromatids, not full chromosomes). It separates double chromosomes.

Mitosis: Has a similar way of passing on genetic information to daughter cells.  Is pretty much meiosis 1 with all the same steps. PMAT=Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase(with cytokinesis). Makes 2 daughter cells genetically identical to the parent cell. 

Uracil: Uracil is a nitrogenous base found only in the nucleotides that make up RNA. So, since RNA contains uracil, and DNA does not, the virologists can classify the viral nucleic acid as RNA.

Evolutionism

Speciation: A species is a group capable of interbreeding. Speciation is the creation of new species and diversifying life forms. Isolation between species is needed for this process, as it prevents interbreeding, gene flow between populations, and fertile reproduction. (Proteins give traits).

Prezygotic Barriers: Prevent the production of fertilized eggs. E.g., habitat isolation, temporal(time) isolation, behavioral isolation, mechanical isolation(different structures so they aren’t compatible), and gamete isolation. 

Postzygotic Barriers: Prevent zygotes from becoming viable offspring. E.g., incompatibility of sperm and egg, hybrid sterility(can’t breed), hybrid breakdown(can breed but next gen can’t or is weak), 

Allopatric Speciation: Speciation due to the population being isolated geographically. There is no gene flow between them and they might be exposed to different selection pressures. 

Sympatric Speciation: Speciation due to reproductive isolation from a surviving ancestral population. Genetic mutations(e.g., polyploidy), habitat differentiation, and sexual selection can cause it. 

Punctuated Equilibrium: Rapid evolution after stasis(little to no evolutionary change). Stasis can be long. Ecological condition changes stimulate evolution.

Gradualism: Evolution over a long time.

Adaptive Radiation: Evolution that allows empty niches to be filled.