Euro Midterm

Prester John: A legendary Christian monarch whom Europeans believed ruled a prosperous kingdom in Africa or Asia, inspiring explorations to locate his realm.

Marco Polo's Travels: Accounts of Marco Polo’s journey to Asia, particularly China, which inspired European interest in the riches of the East and encouraged exploration.

Lateen Rig: A triangular sail that allowed ships to sail more effectively into the wind, facilitating European exploration by increasing navigational versatility.

Quadrant: A navigational tool used to measure angles and help sailors determine their latitude by measuring the height of the sun or stars above the horizon.

Compass: A navigational instrument showing direction relative to the Earth's magnetic poles, essential for accurate sea navigation.

Astrolabe: An instrument used by sailors to determine latitude by measuring the altitude of stars above the horizon.

Cartography: The practice of map-making, which improved significantly during the Age of Exploration, aiding navigation and exploration.

Price Revolution: A period of rising prices in Europe due to an influx of silver and gold from the Americas, leading to inflation and changes in the European economy.

Joint Stock Company: A business model where investors buy shares in a company, sharing both the risks and profits, which financed many exploratory voyages.

Mercantilism: An economic theory emphasizing a favorable balance of trade to increase national wealth, often leading to colonial expansion to secure resources.

Favorable Balance of Trade: An economic policy under which a nation aims to export more than it imports to accumulate wealth, often associated with mercantilism.

Colony: A territory under the political control of another country, established for economic or strategic benefits.

Prince Henry the Navigator: A Portuguese prince who sponsored expeditions along the African coast, advancing navigation and exploration efforts.

The Gold Coast: A region of West Africa rich in gold, which attracted European traders and explorers, particularly the Portuguese.

Bartholomeu Dias: A Portuguese explorer who was the first European to sail around the southern tip of Africa, opening the route to Asia.

Vasco da Gama: A Portuguese explorer who was the first European to reach India by sea, linking Europe and Asia through an ocean route.

Goa: A port on the western coast of India that became a Portuguese trading center and colony, significant in the spice trade.

The Spice Islands: A group of islands in present-day Indonesia, rich in valuable spices, which were highly sought after by European traders.

Ferdinand and Isabella: The Spanish monarchs who sponsored Christopher Columbus’s voyages, leading to European exploration of the Americas.

Christopher Columbus: An Italian explorer funded by Spain who made voyages across the Atlantic, leading to European awareness of the American continents.

Hispaniola: An island in the Caribbean, first explored by Columbus, that became one of the first Spanish colonies in the New World.

Pedro Cabral: A Portuguese navigator who claimed Brazil for Portugal during his voyage to India.

Amerigo Vespucci: An Italian explorer who recognized that the lands discovered by Columbus were part of a new continent, which was later named "America" in his honor.

Vasco Núñez de Balboa: The Spanish explorer who crossed the Isthmus of Panama and became the first European to see the Pacific Ocean from the New World.

Ferdinand Magellan: A Portuguese navigator whose expedition was the first to circumnavigate the globe, though he died before the journey was complete.

Treaty of Tordesillas (1494): An agreement between Spain and Portugal, mediated by the Pope, dividing newly discovered lands outside Europe between them.

Conquistadors: Spanish soldiers and explorers who conquered large areas of the Americas, motivated by wealth, power, and spreading Christianity.

Tenochtitlan: The capital city of the Aztec Empire, which was captured by the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés.

Hernán Cortés: A Spanish conquistador who led the expedition that resulted in the fall of the Aztec Empire in present-day Mexico.

Montezuma: The last emperor of the Aztec Empire, who was defeated by Cortés and his forces.

Quetzalcoatl: A deity in Aztec mythology; some believed that the arrival of the Spanish corresponded to a prophecy involving Quetzalcoatl.

Smallpox: A disease brought by Europeans to the Americas, which devastated indigenous populations due to lack of immunity.

Cuzco: The capital of the Inca Empire in present-day Peru, later captured by Spanish forces.

Francisco Pizarro: The Spanish conquistador who led the conquest of the Inca Empire in South America.

Atahualpa: The last emperor of the Inca Empire, captured and executed by Pizarro and his forces.

Encomienda: A Spanish labor system granting settlers the right to demand labor from indigenous people, often leading to exploitation.

Bartolomé de Las Casas: A Spanish priest who advocated for the rights of indigenous people, criticizing the abuses of the encomienda system.

Viceroy: A governor who ruled a colony on behalf of the sovereign, commonly used in Spanish colonies.

Audiencias: Spanish colonial courts that administered justice and advised the viceroys in governing Spanish colonies.

“Sugar Factories”: Large plantations in the Caribbean and Brazil where enslaved Africans produced sugar, which was a lucrative export.

Henry Hudson: An English explorer who sought a northwest passage to Asia and explored parts of present-day Canada and the northeastern U.S.

Jacques Cartier: A French explorer who claimed parts of Canada for France, searching for a northwest passage to Asia.

Samuel de Champlain: A French explorer and founder of Quebec, establishing the first permanent French settlement in Canada.

Treaty of Utrecht (1713): A series of treaties that ended the War of Spanish Succession, redistributing colonial territories among European powers.

Asiento: A contract allowing foreign powers to supply enslaved Africans to Spanish colonies, significant in the Atlantic slave trade.

French and Indian War: A conflict between Britain and France in North America, part of a larger imperial struggle, ending with British dominance in the region.

Treaty of Paris (1763): The treaty that ended the French and Indian War, leading to significant territorial gains for Britain in North America.

Dutch East India Company: A Dutch trading company that established and maintained trade in Asia, especially in the Spice Islands, often using force.

Calicut: An Indian port visited by European traders, particularly the Portuguese, as a key point in the spice trade.

British East India Company: An English company that dominated trade in India, eventually leading to British political control over the region.

Robert Clive: A British officer and administrator who helped secure British dominance in India, notably after the Battle of Plassey.

Battle of Plassey (1757): A decisive battle in which British forces defeated the Nawab of Bengal, establishing British control over parts of India.

Canton: A Chinese port where the British and other Europeans traded with China under regulated conditions.

Slave Trade: The forced transport and sale of African people as slaves to work in European colonies, especially in the Americas.

Triangular Trade: A trade system between Europe, Africa, and the Americas involving goods, slaves, and raw materials.

Middle Passage: The brutal sea journey endured by enslaved Africans being transported to the Americas.

King Alfonso of Congo: A ruler who initially cooperated with the Portuguese but later opposed the impact of the slave trade on his kingdom.

Quakers: A religious group that was one of the first to oppose slavery, advocating for its abolition.

Mestizos: People of mixed European and indigenous ancestry in Spanish colonies, representing a new social class.

Mulattoes: People of mixed European and African ancestry in Spanish and Portuguese colonies, also forming a distinct social class.

Maize: A crop native to the Americas that became a staple in Europe, Africa, and Asia due to the Columbian Exchange.

Missionaries: Religious figures sent to convert indigenous populations to Christianity, often accompanying explorers and settlers.

The Jesuits: A Catholic religious order that was active in missionary work, especially in Asia and the Americas.

Columbian Exchange: The exchange of goods, plants, animals, and diseases between the Old World and the New World following Columbus's voyages.

Commercial Revolution: A period of economic expansion in Europe, characterized by increased trade and commerce.

Hanseatic League: A commercial and defensive confederation of merchant guilds and their towns in northern Germany and surrounding areas.

Money Economy: An economy in which goods and services are paid for with currency, as opposed to barter.

Capitalism: An economic system based on private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit.

Market: A physical or virtual place where goods and services are exchanged.

Guild: An association of artisans or merchants who oversee the practice of their craft in a particular area.

Entrepreneur: An individual who creates and runs a new business, typically involving financial risks.

Monopoly: The exclusive possession or control of the supply or trade in a commodity or service.

Charter: A written grant by a legislative or sovereign authority conferring certain rights and privileges on a group or individual.

Joint Stock Company: A business entity where different stocks can be bought and owned by shareholders.

Dutch East India Company: A trading company established by the Netherlands that played a major role in trade between Europe and Asia.

Banking: The business conducted or services offered by a bank.

Bank of Amsterdam: One of the first modern banks, pivotal in the development of the banking system in Europe.

Capital: Wealth in the form of money or assets used to generate income.

Price Revolution: A period of time where inflation increased significantly across Europe.

Inflation: A general increase in prices and fall in the purchasing value of money.

Mercantilism: An economic theory that trade generates wealth and is stimulated by the accumulation of profitable balances.

Subsistence Agriculture: Farming that provides enough food for the farmer and their family but not for sale.

Commercial Agriculture: Agriculture produced for sale in the market rather than for direct consumption by the farmer.

Enclosure Movement: The process of consolidating small landholdings into larger farms in England during the 18th century.

The "Putting Out" System: A domestic system of work where materials were distributed to rural workers who would produce goods in their homes.

Clergy: The body of all people ordained for religious duties, especially in the Christian Church.

Nobility: A social class marked by hereditary titles or privileges, often entitled to certain rights and benefits.

Landed Aristocracy: A social class of people who own large amounts of land and have titles to the land.

Gentry: The class of people next below the nobility in position or social status, usually owning land.

Bourgeoisie: The middle class, typically with reference to its perceived materialistic values or conventional attitudes.

Nobles of the Robe: French nobility who acquired status through holding judicial or administrative offices.

Town Elites: Individuals such as merchants and bankers who held significant economic and political power in towns.

Guilds: Various associations of craftsmen and merchants in the Middle Ages.

Working Class: Social class consisting of those who are employed for wages, especially in manual or industrial work.

Urban Poor: The segment of the urban population that is economically disadvantaged and often struggles to meet basic needs.

Peasants: Farmers of low social status who own or rent a small piece of land for cultivation.

Serfdom: The status of many peasants under feudalism, specifically relating to the condition of being bound to a lord's land and subject to his control.

Rural-Urban Migration: The movement of people from the countryside to cities, typically in search of better economic opportunities.

Deserving vs. Undeserving Poor: A distinction made primarily by social reformers about who is worthy of assistance or charity, often criticizing those they deemed to be poor due to laziness.

English Poor Law of 1601: Legislation in England aimed at reducing poverty by enforcing charity and helping the needy.

Absolutism: A political system in which a single ruler or authority holds absolute power.

Jean Bodin: A French lawyer and political philosopher, known for his theory of sovereignty.

Divine Right: The doctrine that kings derive their authority from God and are not accountable to their subjects.

Monarchy: A form of government with a monarch at the head.

Bishop Jacques Bossuet: A French bishop and theologian, a prominent advocate of the divine right of kings.

King Louis XIII: King of France from 1610 to 1643, noted for his weak leadership.

Cardinal Richelieu: Chief minister to Louis XIII, known for his centralization of power in France.

Intendants: Royal officials in France who were responsible for collecting taxes and administering justice.

Taille: A direct tax on the French peasantry during the monarchy.

Thirty Years War: A destructive conflict in Europe (1618-1648) involving many countries, primarily over religious and political issues.

King Louis XIV: French king from 1643 to 1715, known for his long reign and the establishment of an absolute monarchy.

Cardinal Mazarin: Successor to Richelieu, who continued the centralization of power under Louis XIV.

The Fronde: A series of civil wars in France between 1648 and 1653, which challenged the authority of the monarchy.

Versailles: A royal palace in France; symbol of the absolute monarchy of Louis XIV.

The "Sun King": A nickname for Louis XIV, illustrating his belief that he was the center of the French universe.

Estates: The social classes in pre-revolutionary France: the clergy, the nobility, and the common people.

Parlements: Regional judicial bodies in France that could register royal edicts and were composed of nobility.

Edict of Fontainebleau: A 1685 edict that revoked the Edict of Nantes, leading to the persecution of Huguenots.

Huguenots: French Protestants who faced persecution under the Catholic monarchy.

Jean-Baptiste Colbert: Minister of finance under Louis XIV, known for his economic reforms and mercantilist policies.

Mercantilism: An economic theory that emphasizes government regulation of the economy to increase national power.

Francois-Michel Le Tellier: Minister of War and a key figure in developing the French army under Louis XIV.

Treaty of Ryswick: A treaty that ended the Nine Years' War in 1697, returning territories to their original owners.

Mannerism: An art style that emerged in the late Renaissance, characterized by exaggerated proportions and dramatic poses.

El Greco: A Greek painter known for his dramatic and expressionistic style.

Baroque: An artistic style that emerged in the 17th century, known for its grandeur and emotional intensity.

Peter Paul Rubens: A Flemish baroque painter known for his vibrant and dynamic compositions.

Gian Lorenzo Bernini: An Italian sculptor and architect known for his Baroque sculptures and contributions to St. Peter's Basilica.

Dutch Realism: An art movement characterized by lifelike representation and realistic depictions of everyday life.

Rembrandt: A Dutch painter known for his contributions to Dutch Realism and his masterful use of light and shadow.

William Shakespeare: An English playwright known for his works that explore human nature and society.

Lope de Vega: A Spanish playwright and poet regarded as one of the founders of Spanish drama.

Jean-Baptiste Moliere: A French playwright known for his comedic works, particularly in the genre of farce.

Hohenzollern: A dynasty that ruled Brandenburg-Prussia and later the German Empire.

Brandenburg-Prussia: A historic state in Germany that became a leading power in Europe.

Frederick William the Great Elector: A ruler who laid the foundations for the state of Prussia in the 17th century.

General War Commissariat: A government body in Prussia responsible for military affairs.

Junkers: The landed nobility in Prussia, known for their political influence and military service.

Hapsburgs: A prominent royal family that ruled over various territories in Europe, notably Austria.

Leopold I: Holy Roman Emperor known for his wars with France and the Ottoman Empire.

Tsar: The title of Russian emperors, derived from Caesar.

Boyars: The Russian nobility, who held land and power in medieval and early modern Russia.

Time of Troubles: A period of political chaos and foreign invasion in Russia (1598-1613).

Peter the Great: Russian czar known for his extensive reforms to modernize Russia.

Russian Orthodox Church: The national church of Russia, which played a significant role in Russian history.

Saint Petersburg: A city founded by Peter the Great as a modern capital of Russia.

Frederick William I: King in Prussia known for his military reforms and establishment of a strong army.

General Directory: The governing body in Prussia that managed state affairs.

Frederick II (the Great): King of Prussia known for his military victories and enlightenment policies.

Maria Theresa: Empress of Austria who reformed her empire and preserved its integrity against external threats.

Diet: A legislative assembly in the Holy Roman Empire, responsible for governance and lawmaking.

Joseph II: Holy Roman Emperor known for his ambitious reforms aimed at modernizing the empire.

Serfdom: A form of labor in which peasants are bound to the land and under the control of landowners.

Catherine the Great: Empress of Russia who expanded the empire and promoted Westernization.

The Dutch Republic: A federation of provinces in the Netherlands, known for its trade and maritime power.

United Provinces: Another name for the Dutch Republic consisting of several provinces.

Peace of Westphalia: A series of treaties in 1648 that ended the Thirty Years' War and established a new political order in Europe.

Stadtholder: The chief executive in the Dutch Republic, often held by a member of the House of Orange.

States General: The legislative assembly of the Dutch Republic.

Amsterdam: The capital city of the Netherlands, an important center of trade and finance.

Dutch East/West India Company: Trade companies established by the Dutch for trading in the East and West Indies.

The Exchange Bank of Amsterdam: A major financial institution in the 17th century that established Amsterdam as a financial center.

England: A country in the UK, influential in the development of constitutional monarchy.

James I: King of England whose reign saw the rise of absolutism and conflicts with Parliament.

Puritans: A group of English Protestants who sought to purify the Church of England from Roman Catholic practices.

Gentry: The social class of wealthy landowners in England who did not have noble titles.

Charles I: King of England whose conflict with Parliament led to the English Civil War.

Petition of Rights: A constitutional document that limited the powers of the king and established certain rights of citizens.

Ship Money: A tax that Charles I attempted to levy without parliamentary consent, causing unrest.

William Laud: Archbishop of Canterbury known for his high church policies and persecution of Puritans.

Long Parliament: The English Parliament that lasted from 1640 to 1660, which sought to limit royal prerogatives.

Triennial Act: A law requiring Parliament to meet at least once every three years.

John Pym: A leader of the parliamentary opposition during the English Civil War.

English Civil War: A series of conflicts in England between the royalists and parliamentarians (1642-1651).

Oliver Cromwell: A military and political leader during the English Civil War who later ruled as Lord Protector.

Rump Parliament: The remaining members of the Long Parliament after Pride's Purge, which tried and executed Charles I.

Levellers: A political movement during the English Civil War advocating for popular sovereignty and equal rights.

Charles II: King of England who restored the monarchy after the English Civil War.

Declaration of Indulgence: A policy by Charles II allowing for freedom of worship to Catholics and dissenters.

Whigs: A political faction in England favoring parliamentary supremacy.

Tories: A political faction in England supporting the authority of the monarchy.

James II: King of England known for his Catholic policies and conflicts with Parliament, leading to the Glorious Revolution.

Test Act: A series of acts that restricted political and civil rights of Catholics and dissenters in England.

Glorious Revolution: The overthrow of James II in 1688, leading to the establishment of William and Mary's reign.

William and Mary: The monarchs who ascended to the English throne after the Glorious Revolution, marking the start of constitutional monarchy.

English Bill of Rights: An act that limited the powers of the monarchy and affirmed the rights of Parliament and citizens.

Toleration Act: An act granting freedom of worship to nonconformists in England.