Unit 7: Global Conflicts

Topic 1: Shifting Global Power after 1900

Ottoman Empire

External Factors

Nationalist Revolts: Balkan and Greek peoples had loyalties to their ethnic identities, not the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman Empire lost most of its territories to emerging Balkan states and even Egypt to Muhammad Ali.

• Crimean War: Ottomans were increasingly dependent on Europe. Undermined Ottoman rule and granted economic privileges to Europe.

Arab Revolt: Arab forces employed guerilla tactics with the help of British military advisors. Disrupted supply lines and communications. The capture of Damascus marked the end of Ottoman control of the Arabian peninsula.

Ottomans sided with Germany and Central Powers during WWI. British forces fought against Ottoman Empire, resulting in key losses for Ottomans. Their defeat results from inability to produce weapons and build rail lines that could outpace industrial might of axis powers.

Internal Factors

Economic Problems: military officers owned most of the land and were exempt from taxes which made it hard to raise revenue. Tax farming became corrupt/

Military decline: Janissaries operated separately with the weakening Sultan’s court. Resisted modernization and reform, which made them no longer effective against advanced European technology.

Young Turks led a revolution that established constitutional government. Turkish nationalism also stressed only Turkish language and culture. This aggravated tensions between Turkish and non-Turkish people within the empire.

Changes after WWI

Treaty of Sévres: dismantled the Ottoman Empire, giving parts to Britain, France, Greece, and Italy.

Mandate System: placed Ottoman empire under European control as “mandates”

Mustafa Kamal resisted against Sultan’s government. The Grand National Assembly of Turkey abolished Ottoman Sultanate and established new Turkish Republic, approved by the axis powers. This was the beginning of secular, nationalist Turkish state.

Russian Empire

External Factors

Crimean War was fought over expansion and influence over Ottoman Empire. Britain and France supported ottomans and defeated Russia, exposing their weakness in outdated military, poor infrastructure, and inefficient bureaucracy.

Russo-Japanese War: caused over imperial ambitions over Manchura and Korea. Russias defeat shattered national prestige and weakened public confidence in the Tsar.

World War I accelerated decline by deepening long-standing political, social, and economic problems. Army suffered poor leadership, logistical failures, and lacked modern technology. Defeats against Germany also demoralized troops. War-related economic strain led to food shortages, inflation, and worker unrest.

Internal Factors

Industrial protest from the working class (proletariat). They faced harsh working conditions, low wages, and little political representation. Anti-government protests increased, especially University students inspires by Western European Socialism. Tsarist officials were increasingly repressive with harsh punishments.

• Bloody Sunday Massacre: Imperial forces open fired on unarmed protestors looking for better working conditions. Destroyed Tsar’s image, eroded legitimacy of Tsar’s rule, and sparked more uprisings.

Changes after WWI

February Revolution: caused by World War I, food shortages, and dissatisfaction with the Tsar. Protesters forced the Tsar to abdicate. A provisional government was established, but struggled to maintain power.

Civil war broke out for power over the new provisional government. The White Army supported provisional government while the Red Army supported Bolsheviks Communist Party.

November Revolution of 1917: Bolsheviks take power and Russia becomes the world’s first communist state.

Qing Empire in China

External Factors

Unequal treaties after the Opium Wars with Western Powers and after Sino-Japanese War contributed to China’s decline. They were forced to give up territory and allowed foreign powers to dominate trade.

• Economic Imperialism: spheres of influence: foreign powers controlled Chinese economy and undermined Qing sovereignty. Spread of democratic, nationalist ideas inspired revolutionary movements.

Internal Factors

Ethnic tensions between majority Han population and Manchurian rulers. Qing government was plagued by corruption, inefficiency, and widespread discontent from the people.

Failure to industrialize and modernize due to resistance to change and adherence to traditions. Self-Strengthening Movement and Hundred Days Reforms both fail in bringing modernization.

Taipeng Revolution: sought to overthrow Qing government and establish a new Christian=based kingdom. The Qing government struggled to suppress the rebellion due to the weak and corrupt military. Forced to rely on regional warlords that empowered them and later let to internal divisions. → Drained finances, disrupted agriculture and trade, and exposed inability to address issues, leading to further uprisings.

Boxer Rebellion: anti-Qing and anti-foreign uprisings that targeted Christians. Great Britain and Americas destroy Boxer Rebellion.

Changes after WWI

Chinese Nationalist Movement (Revolution of 1911): Resulted in a new government, led by Sun Yat-sen. Did not improve quality of life for most people. Republic of China was unstable and unequal treaties remained in effect.

Mexican Revolution

Causes

Began with growing dissatisfaction among lower classes against dictator Porfinio Piaz that only supported large landowners and industrialists. Lowest classes hoped conditions and opportunities would improve

Effects

Francisco Madero defeated the Mexican army and became the new president

The Mexican Constitution of 1917 allowed universal suffrage, greater access to primary education, and land distribution

While conditions improved for some, many peoples’ hopes were unfulfilled.

Topic 2: World War I

Causes of WWI

Militarism & Mobilization

Militarism: the belief or desire of a government or people that a country should maintain a strong military capacity and be prepared to use aggressively to defend or promote national interests

Arms Race/Naval Race: Arms race between UK and Germany. HMS Dreadnought prompted Germany to accelerate naval construction. Led to competitive buildup of naval forces.

Conscription Policies: European countries made military service required from male population. Led to expansion of armies.

Military Plans: Detailed military planning and mobilization timetables. Created in anticipated of war and led to quick escalation from regional dispute to war

Military Leadership: Military leaders had significant influence over national policy and led to aggressive foreign polices

Alliances

Alliances were created in defensive nature, intended to maintain balance of power and deter aggression. Also created conditions where conflict involving one power quickly involved others, leading to domino effect of war.

Dual Alliance: defensive alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary. Established to protect against Russian aggression, and each country promised assistance if attacked. → Later renamed Triple Alliance after Italy joined: aimed at countering France, and promised assistance with war

• Central Powers Alliance: Ottoman Empire, Germany, and Austria-Hungary

In response to Triple Alliance, France and Russia formed alliance and promised mutual military support.

Entente Cordiale: series of agreements between Britain and France. Resolved colonial disputes and marked end of rivalry. British and Russia settled differences in Anglo-Russian Entente. → Formed basis of Triple Entente: informal alignment of British, France, and Russia that countered Triple Alliance (later joined by Japan)

Imperialism

First Moroccan Crisis: Germany declared support for Moroccan independence, directly challenging French influence in the region. Algeciras conference sided with France and caused resentment in Germany.

Second Moroccan Crisis: German presence in Morocco. Ended with Germany recognizing French control over Morocco for territories, but worsened Anglo-German relations.

Decline of the Ottoman’s Empire → Symbol of shifting European power as they sought to expand spheres of influence

Austria-Hungary and Serbian desires to expand their territories leads to conflict and tension. Russia sides with Serbia, leading to decline in Austro-Russian relations.

Nationalism

Nationalism: strong identification and devotion to one’s nation. Led to intense rivalries or conflicts. Also increased ethnic tensions in multi-ethnic empires.

Serbian Nationalism: growing sense of national identity and desire for independence against Ottoman rule. Serbian populations had preserved distinct culture and religious identity. Serbian uprising led to Serbian Independence.

Balkan Wars: First Balkan War pushed Ottoman Empire out of European territories. During Second Balkan War, countries that revolted against Ottoman Empire turned against each other for division of spoils. → Highlighted expansionist ambitions and shifts in territory (conflict with Austria-Hungary)

Short Term Causes

The Assassination of Austria’s Arch-Duke by Black Hand: The assassination of the Arch-Duke led to tensions between the Austro-Hungarian empire and the neighboring kingdom of Serbia. European powers started taking sides, which led to increased stakes and nationalist aspirations that grew out of initial conflicts

Austria Issues Ultimatum to Serbia: European powers take sides to defend the two, icreasing stakes.

Austia-Hungary declares War on Serbia: The “Great War” was the war fought between these two nations

Russia Mobilizes for War: the triple alliance disturbed Russia’s tsarist regime, which causes them to form the triple entente and mobilize for war

Germany Declares War on Russian and France: Germany uses the Schleiffen plan to declare war on France and defensive action against Russia

British Declare War on Germany: declares war on Germany and demands a Belgian neutralist to be respected

Start of WWI and 40 million casualties (half of which were deaths): German Leaders refuse and declare war starting WWI among the major powers

Conducting World War I

Propaganda and Art

Tried to convince the public that military defeat would mean destruction of everything worth living for. Discredited and dehumanized enemies.

• German: depicted Russians as semi-Asiastic barbarians, and Allied powers are rapers

• British: depicted Germans converting corpses to fertilizer and food

• United States Committee on Public Information: propaganda office that used various media forms to turn Americans supporting the war

• British recruitments posters

• WAAC (Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps) posters

• Indian recruitments posters (to aid in British-India war efforts)

Media Censorship

Governments restricted civil liberties and censored bad news. People who criticized their nation’s war efforts were prosecuted as traitors.

• French prime minister Joseph Caillaux spent two years in prison awaiting trial because he publicly suggested to compromise peace with Germany

• Soldiers expected censorship of their persona/correspondence → could not send letters of their personal experience at war)

Government Control of the Economy

Governments abandoned laissez-faire capitalist market economy and instituted tight control over the economy. Reorganized entire industries, set production quotas and priorities, and determined what would be produced or consumed. Established wage and price controls, extended work hours. and restricted movement of workers.

• As men fought in the war, it caused a demand in labor at home. This resulted in unemployment to disappear almost overnight

Female Labor

As men went to fight in the war, women filled gaps in the workforce. Patriotism and high wages drew women to former “male” jobs. Women took over farms and businesses left by their husbands. Others found jobs in postal workers or police officers. Behind battle lines. women were nurses, physicians, and communication clerks. Women also made shells and explosives.

• Female Yeoman: Women in the US Navy

• Hello Girls: bilingual women who worked as telephone switchboard operators

Role of the Colonies

Countries mobilized troops from colonies and were seen as extensions of the respective imperial armies. Colonies would provide support to the nations that controlled them to aid in war efforts.

• Gallipoli campaign: Allied operation aimed at capturing Constantinople → mobilized colonies (Australia, New Zealand, India, Newfoundland) to help in the war

Innovations in Warfare

Trench Warfare

Continuous line of trenches that divided the armies of Allies with Central Powers. Often filled with water and mud, it was a defense against powerful artillery and machine-fun fire in battlefields. Life was extremely harsh and led to trauma, disease, and death.

Chemical Warfare

Poison Gas (Mustard Gas): caused severe burns to eyes, skin, and respiratory tract. Lingered to the environment for weeks. contaminating terrain. Was used in warfare and was less noticeable.

• First used by Germany against British and Canadian soldiers near Ypres, Belgium.

Machine Guns

Weapon capable of discharging multiple bullets by simply activating trigger. Prompted wider development of automatic firearms.

• Barrage fire: firing high over heads of their own troops to pave way for attack or in response to infantry SOS calls

Tanks
Designed to traverse difficult terrain, crush barbed wire defenses, and provide cover from machine gun fire

• Battle of Somme: first used tanks by the British and instilled fear and confusion among German troops

Submarines/U Boats

Allowed for stealth and surprise underwater attacked. Use of torpedoes allowed U-boats (submarines) to inflict much damage compared to relatively small size

• Sinking of Lusitania, claiming the lives of 1198 passengers and crew. Contributed to shifting public view towards Allied forces

• U-boat blockade of Britain: ultimately drew US into the war after American ships were sunk

Topic 3: Unresolved Tensions after WWI

Treaty of Versailles

Germany was treated the most harshly

• Germany had to pay billions in reparations for damage caused by the war. 

• Germany had to give up all of its colonies. 

• Germany had to restrict the size of its armed forces. 

• Germany took all the blame for the war. 

Effects on Germany

• Humiliating for German leaders who lost the trust of their people. 

• Ruined German economy

  • Sky high inflation

• Germans were bitter and resented the new Weimar Republic government, which replaced Germany after the war. 

• Set the stage for the extremely militaristic Nazi party to talk power.

Paris Peace Conference

• Participants:

  • Woodrow Wilson (United States

  • Georges Celmenceau (France): France had suffered the most and should receive special considerations and protection from Germany

  • David Lloyd George (Great Britain): Supported Clemenceau’s ideas, but often was intermediary between the two nations

  • Vittorio Orlando (Italy): left the conference in rage because they were not given the land they were promised for joining war effort

  • Russia: was not invited due to Bolshevik revolution (communism) → refused to honor Russia’s debt to the allies, so they refused to recognize Bolshevik government.

• Fourteen Points: proposed by Woodrow Wilson at the Paris Peace Conference

  • League of Nations: organization where world powers would regularly meet to discuss conflicts openly and avoid tensions that lead to war → attempts to not have another world war

  • Self-determination: Conquered peoples under the central powers had the right to decide their own political futures, rather than be taken by the victors → 9 new nations were created due to the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian Empires

France, Britain, and the US dominated deliberations and threatened to get their terms accepted. Although Wilson proposed the fourteen points, allied powers disagreed with many of them. The defeated powers felt betrayed in the harsh peace treaties that violated the fourteen points.

• Mandate System: administration of nations from the Ottoman Empire that Britain and France claimed were “not ready to stand by themselves.” Fell to the victorious Allied powers of WWI who took on power of managing colonies of central powers, but was continued imperial rule for the natives.

Japan was not treated equally in Peace Conference in Paris due to racial discrimination. It was also dissatisfied with the refusal for racial equality.

Japan suffered extreme economic decline (inflation, huge job layoffs, etc.) that fueled social unrest. This led to politicians who supported militaristic vision of self-sufficient Japan, and was support by the people.

Japan was interested in Manchuria. In the Mukdang incident, Japan blew up their own railroad and blamed it on China and went to war. China went to the league of nations for help. After the League of nations demanded Japanese forces to be removed from Manchuria and criticized their actions in Manchuria, Japan withdrew from the League of Nations.

Construction of railway contributed to national unity. Enlightenment views promoted nationalist movements.

• Indian National Congress: first stressed self-rule in India, but later turned into opposition to the British. WWI led to social discontent with the British, and upsurge of nationalist movements led to violence and disorder

• Gandhi: embraced moral philosophy of ahimsa (tolerance and nonviolence) and developed technique of passive resistance called satyagraha (truth and firmness). Transformed National Congress to an organization of Indian nationalism.

• Non-cooperation Movement and Civil Disobedience Movement: Indians boycotted British goods and institutions

As nationalist ideas developed, China looked towards United States and Europe for models for reform. China expected the US to support the termination of treaty system and restoration of full Chinese sovereignty. However, peacemakers approved increased Japanese presence in China.

• May Fourth Movement: all classes of Chinese protested against foreign (especially Japanese) influences.

• Chinese Communist Party: China became interested in Marxist

Africans were encouraged and at times forced to participate in the war. Many colonies died due to fights and may have led to increased tension with European powers.

The Mumbo Cult in Kenya targeted European and the Christian religion, declaring all Europeans as their enemy.

Topic 4: Economic Developments in the Interwar Period

The Global Great Depression

• Stock Market speculation: overinflated value of stocks and people bought stocks on loans. People started taking out stocked due to uneasiness that led to the stock market crash → Stock Market Crash of 1929 was responded by panic, as people took all their money out and therefore banks did not have enough cash. Banks closed and people lost their life savings

• Inequality: Top 1% of Americans owned half of the country’s wealth. The other 99% went into debt to support their life and open businesses

• Reparations and Loans: Britain and France were in debt to US after WWI. Germany was in economic crisis and could not afford to pay reparations. Due to this, US offered loans to help German government.

Global Impact of the Great Depression

• Decline in global production of goods and manufacturing. International trade also declined. As a result, prices plummeted, crippling the economies that produced them.

  • Production and trade decline → Factories shut down → Workers lost jobs → High unemployment

• Tariffs: although they were intended to force citizens to buy domestic goods, economies suffered as regions such as European colonies and Latin America depended on exporting raw materials. Latin American colonies were tied with European banks, so Argentina and Brazil especially faced debt crisis. Other nations were impacted as they could not export or locally consume cash crops.

Soviet Union

Five Years’ Plan:

• Bring the economy under state control → consolidate all industry in the hands of the state

  • Gosplan: state planning committee that replaced free market

• Transition to communist society

• Prepare for future war

• Increase output through rapid industrialization and collectivization of agriculture → propaganda portrayed need to industrialize as a “battle” workers were fighting and those who opposed were traitors

• Overall successful

  • Industrial capacity increased by 50%, and Russia surpassed both Britain and Germany in industrial output

Collectivization:

Stalin’s plan to shift agriculture from individual farms to large, state run farms worked by peasants.

• More than 90% of peasants were forced to live and work on collective farms

• Middle-class peasants opposed collectivization and chose to kill livestock. More that half the Russia’s livestock was lost, and numbers did not recover.

• Failures included resistance, imprisonment, or famine caused by chaos

• Women’s rights improved as communism stressed equal rights, not just in social classes but in genders too. Women entered working forces, and although not 100% equal, there was more equality than western nations.

United States

Franklin D. Roosevelt challenged Hoover, promising a New Deal that would expand powers of the federal government to combat the economic crisis. Main goals were to stimulate the economy, address inequality, and to restore public faith in the economy through a variety of programs and laws.

• Three R’s: Relief for the unemployed, recovery of the economy, and reform to prevent future disasters

• Provided jobs and implemented public work projects

• Gave rights to unions to bargain for better wages and working conditions

• Social Security Act: provided pensions and unemployment relief/insurance to millions and created programs to care for dependent children and the disabled

• While more African Americans and women entered the working force, they still faced discrimination and lower wages. Many Mexican-American citizens were also deported to preserve resources and jobs for White Americans.

  • Vastly changed the role of the government: vastly increased government’s role in overseeing the nation’s economy, safeguarding welfare of citizens, and provided a safety net

  • Several laws and agencies were deemed unconstitutional, but many reforms endured well beyond the Great Depression.

  • Unemployment improved, and many sectors of the economy returned to pre-depression levels.

Authoritarian Regimes

Mussolini rose to power by denouncing the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, in which Italians felt had cheated their country. Also aided by severe inflation and debt after WWI.

• Outlawed future elections and established one-party dictatorship

• State controlled most of the industry and banks

• Corporatism: Fascists believe in regulating capitalism by controlling labor and factory owners. Unions, strikes, and other labor actions are illegal. Although private property remains, state controls the economy

  • Mussolini organized industry, agriculture, and economic services into state-controlled labor unions and employer associations. Although attempted to unify workers by setting aside private interests in favor of fascist state, employers usually benefited more than workers did.

Nazi Germany: anger over Treaty of Versailles, economic uncertainty, inflation, and social unrest led to Nazi Party and Adolf Hitler to consolidate power.

• Banned political parties

• Claimed Jews were responsible for Great Depression and fueled anti-Semitism

• Wanted to convert Germany into an autarky (self-sufficient state)

Brazil: coffee was their biggest export, and due to the Great Depression, unemployment soared. This led to a revolution, where Getúlio Vargas seized power. he believed Brazil’s future success depended on ridding reliance on foreign investment and establishment on policy of industrailization. Brazil was able to emerge from economic crisis sonner than United Kingdom or the United States.

Topic 5: World War II

Causes

Unsustainable Peace: Japan, Italy, and Germany wanted to revise the peace settlements that followed the Great War as they were unhappy with the results. Two major alliances formed: the Axis Powers (Germany, Italy, Japan, etc.) and the Allied Powers (France, Britain, Commonwealth Allies, China, Soviet Union, US, and allies in Latin America).

Global Economic Crisis: Much of the world depended on the export of US capital and the strength of US import markets. The contraction of the US economy created a ripple effect to the entire world economy and caused economic and social unrest in countries such as Germany.

Japan Expansion to China: Revisionist nations aimed to remilitarize and conquer territories they deemed central to their needs of imperial control. Japan thought territorial expansion was essential for their survival and to prove themselves to white nations. However, after the League of Nations condemned Japan’s actions in Manchuria, Japan withdrew and followed ultranationalist and pro-military policies. It aligned itself with other revisionist nations of Germany and Italy.

Rise of Fascist and Totalitarian Regimes:

Fascism: governments featured the veneration of the state, a devotion to a strong leader, emphasis on ultranationalism, ethnocentrism, and militarism

• Main idea: destroy will of individual in favour of the people

• Wanted a unified society like communists, but did not eliminate private

Hitler and the Nazi Party gained power legally through the ballot box. Hitler attracted people who lost faith and was disappointed with the young German democracy who people blamed for their misfortunes. Hitler appealed to people because he promised to end those misfortunes.

Hitler abandoned peace efforts to ease provisions of the Treaty of Versailles. Germany withdrew from the League of Nations and carried out plans to strengthen the military and territorial expansion, which ultimately leads to the outbreak of WWII in Europe.

Total War

United States

Military Recruitment and Role of Government: “Citizen soldiers” were recruited from both men and women. Draft was used to bolster military numbers. The American military grew to nearly 2.2 million soldiers, sailors, airmen, and marines.

Rationing and Recycling: Rationing of foods in US decreased consumer consumption and diverted food and other resources of the war effort. Rationed items included glycerin, gas, and rubber. “Food for Victory” campaign was also launched to urge citizens to grow their own fruits and vegetables in victory gardens.

Labor and the Economy: Overall government spending increased as well as taxes, military spending, and number of people to pay taxes. US increased spending on weapons to 42 billion.

Propaganda: Office of War Information used posters, movies, cartoons, etc. in order to unite Americans for the war effort.

Military Tactics and Technology: the atomic bomb could vaporize and kill 200,000+ people almost instantly. it was used against cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, which led to Japan’s surrender. Firebombing was a tactic intended to cause widespread fire damage, typically in densely populated areas. US dropped thousands of firebombs in Tokyo

Germany

Rationing: Germans’ diet became monotonous, consisting of bread, potatoes, and preserves. Germany rationed food through point systems and food entitlements. The closed economy meant their consumer goods were more expensive and also led to meat shortage.

Labor and the Economy: 13.7 million men served in the war, creating labour shortage on home front. As a result, women entered work force. Also used forced labor from civilians and prisoners of war from Eastern Europe.

Total War: all of Germany’s economic activity solely focused on winning the war. All production of civilian goods stopped and factories only produce goods for war effort.

Propaganda: promoted Nazi message through art, music, theater, films, books, radio, and the press. The Nazis censored all opposition and created an atmosphere to commit terrible atrocities against Jews and other minorities

Military Tactics and Technology: Area Bombing targeted large industrial cities, not distinguishing between military and civilian targets. Used tactic called “Blitzkrieg” which relied on stealth, surprise, swiftness, and large numbers to overwhelm the enemies and win lightning wars.

Topic 6: Mass Atrocities after 1900

Genocide: Mass extermination of a group of people based on the group's race, religion, ethnicity, or nationality with the intent to destroy or eliminate.

Armenian Genocide

Ottoman rulers thought that Armenians would betray and turn on them, and so they began viewing Armenians as a threat. Tensions increased with the establishment of the Young Turk government who pushed for only Turkish culture and Muslim religion, and did not view millet communities as part of the Ottoman Empire.

Turks marched to other European states killing Armenians. They tried to justify it saying it was a response to Armenian revolts. The Turks even stated that all Armenians in eastern Europe must be exterminated.

Holocaust

The Nazi annihilated millions of Jews, Slavs, and Roma (Gypsies), but Jews were the primary targets of the racially motivated genocidal policies. The Nazis killed entire populations of Jews and Roma through mass shootings.

• Final Solution: the murder of every Jew living in Europe. Concentration camps were established for industrial work, starvation, medical experimentation, and outright extermination of Jews. Auschwitz was the largest concentration camp where at least 1 million Jews perished.

Causes

• European Fascism: Fascist governments emphasized concepts such as xenophobia and chauvinism, which fueled a sense of ethnocentrism

• Rise of Nazi Party and Adolf Hitler:

  • Hyperinflation (economic crisis), the loss in Great War, and anger for the Treaty of Versailles attracted people to Hitler and the Nazi Party. Hitler promised to bring back greatness to Germany and quickly appealed politically who lost faith in the new democratic government of Germany that led to the rise of the Nazi Party.

• Scientific Racism: Nazis claimed that the Aryan race (White race, typically with blond hair and blue eyes) was the most superior, and other races such as Jews and Romas were racially inferior. Eugenics was also used as Nazi justification of the extermination of people classified as inferior by Nazis.

• Increasing Anti-Semitism

  • Jews have been discriminated and persecuted throughout most of history. A large reason towards them being discriminated was because they were held responsible for the death of Christ. With the emergence of racial ideologies in the 19th century, they were seen as a different race and not apart of society. After WWI ended, Right wing extremists blamed the war on the Jews, calling them exploits and followers of communism.

  • Anti-Semitism was especially increasing in Germany: The Third Reich pursued the creation of a race-based nation, as they believed that there was no room for the “racially inferior”

    • Nuremberg policy: deprived German Jews of citizenship and prohibited Jew/German relations.

    • Kristallnacht: event in which the Nazi’s destroyed Jewish businesses, burned down synagogues, and murdered Jews throughout Austria/Germany.