Week 4 Pt 1 (hist128)

Rise of Nationalism in the 19th Century

• Nationalism developed, leading to the formation of newly unified nations such as Germany and Italy.

• The mid-19th century is marked by revolutions that disrupt old political orders.

1848 Revolutions

• Series of revolutions erupted across Europe, sparked by unrest in France.

• France's economic depression affected lower middle class, leading to unrest.

• King Louis Philippe's government was overthrown; a provisional government formed.

  • Provisional government: consisted of moderate and radical Republicans.

  • Universal male suffrage was introduced to create a new constitution, ratified in November 1848, establishing the Second Republic of France.

• Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (Napoleon III) won the presidency and later declared himself emperor.

Consequences of the Revolutions

Unification of Italy

• In Italy, nationalism grew against Austrian dominance.

• The Congress of Vienna had established 9 states in Italy, which were under Austrian control.

• Young Italy movement led to revolts in 1848 but faced Austrian repression.

• Key figures:

  • King Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia appointed Count Camille de Cavour as Prime Minister in 1852.

  • Cavour sought alliances and pursued military strategy against Austria, successfully gaining Lombardy.

• Giuseppe Garibaldi and his "Red Shirts" captured Southern cities and handed over power to Piedmont, leading to the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861.

  • Complete unification occurred in 1870 with annexation of Rome.

Unification of Germany

• In Germany, the Frankfurt Assembly (1848-49) attempted to create a united German state but failed due to lack of enforcement mechanisms.

• Prussia emerged as the leader in the quest for German unification under Otto von Bismarck, appointed in 1862.

• Bismarck's wars:

  • Defeated Denmark (1864) and Austria (1866), creating the North German Confederation.

  • Provoked France into war (1870), resulting in French defeat and annexation of Alsace-Lorraine.

• On January 18, 1871, at Versailles, William I was proclaimed Kaiser of the Second German Empire, marking Germany's unification.

  • This unification was characterized by a triumph of authoritarianism and militarism over liberal constitutionalism.

Russia's Modernization and Revolution

• Russia was largely rural and autocratic, with serfdom until 1861.

• The Crimean War defeat (1856) highlighted Russia's backwardness, prompting reforms by Tsar Alexander II.

  • Emancipation of serfs in 1861; however, land redistribution led to peasant dissatisfaction.

• Assassination of Alexander II in 1881 led to suppression of reformist movements by his successor Alexander III.

• Rapid industrialization took place, and by 1900 Russia became significant in global steel production.

• Rising middle class sought more political involvement; among workers, discontent led to radicalism.

• Growth of socialist movements; in 1898, the illegal Russian Social Democratic Labor Party was established.

• 1905 Revolution spurred by defeats against Japan and rising social unrest; resulted in limited reforms like the Duma, but instability persisted.

France and Austria in the 19th Century

France

• After the 1848 revolution, Napoleon III established the Second Empire, focusing on industrial growth and modernization of Paris.

• Continued opposition led to liberalization efforts; ended with the Franco-Prussian War (1870) and establishment of the Third Republic.

Austria

• The Austrian Empire struggled with ethnic nationalism, and after its defeat by Prussia in 1866, it negotiated a dual monarchy with Hungary (1867).

• The arrangement allowed for some local governance but didn't satisfy other ethnic groups within the empire.

• Austria maintained a largely autocratic regime under Franz Josef, leading to further tensions among nationalities.

Conclusion

• The mid-19th century witnessed the consolidation of nation-states through a complex interplay of revolution, war, and ethnic nationalism, setting the stage for future conflicts.