International Relations: Perspectives, Levels of Analysis, and Causal Reasoning
The Attacks of September 11 (Illustrative Case)
- Basic facts
- Terrorists hijacked four U.S. commercial airliners on Sept 11, 2001.
- Targets included the World Trade Center, the Pentagon, and (intended) either the Capitol or White House; one plane crashed in Pennsylvania after passengers intervened.
- Death toll ā 2,977 people, the single-largest terrorist attack in modern history.
- Why the case matters for theory building
- Serves as a comparative lens to illustrate how each IR perspective (Realist, Liberal, Identity, Critical Theory) selects different causal arrows and levels of analysis to explain the same event.
- Competing explanations
- Realist ā Power asymmetry: weak non-state actor (Al Qaeda) vs. strong state (U.S.); a classic case of the security dilemma playing out across systemic, domestic, and individual levels.
- Liberal ā Failed institutional relationships: diplomatic disputes, inadequate multilateral engagement; breakdown in reciprocity and interdependence generated space for extremism.
- Identity ā Ideological mismatch: authoritarian Arab regimes + anti-Western narratives; democratic reform at the domestic level could realign identities and mitigate conflict.
- Critical Theory ā Pervasive structural violence: global inequalities and hegemonic domination reproduce cycles of resistance; international level emphasizes historically-rooted oppression.
The Prisonerās Dilemma (PD) Across Perspectives
- General concept: Two rational actors choose to cooperate or defect; individual rationality ā collective sub-optimality.
- Realist interpretation
- Assumption: Anarchy + self-help compel states to defect (arms race).
- Security dilemma captured formally as PD payoff matrix.
- Liberal interpretation
- Repeated PD (iterated games) + institutions facilitate reciprocity ā higher probability of sustained cooperation.
- Shadow of the future and interdependence raise the cost of cheating.
- Identity interpretation
- The meaning of ādefectā or ācooperateā is socially constructed; shared norms can redefine payoffs, possibly transforming PD into a coordination game.
The Realist Perspective
- Core causal arrow: Distribution of material power ā state behavior.
- Key principles
- Anarchy (absence of world government) ā self-help.
- States are principal, sovereign, rational, unitary actors.
- Security dilemma: defensive measures by one state decrease othersā security.
- Balance of power: States form alliances or arm internally to prevent hegemony.
- Polarity typology
- Unipolar, bipolar, multipolar systems; each shapes war probability differently.
- Policy implications
- Favor unilateralism/āminilateralismā (small coalitions) when interests align; skepticism toward broad IGOs.
- Constant readiness for war, contingency planning.
The Liberal Perspective
- Core causal arrow: Patterns of reciprocity, interdependence, and institutions ā outcomes.
- Technological change & modernization
- Spread of communication tech enables NGOs, civil society, and transnational relations.
- Rise of human security (focus on individuals, not just states).
- Institutions & regimes
- Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs) and international regimes create rules, lower transaction costs, encourage information sharing.
- Path dependence: early institutional decisions constrain future options.
- Global governance = aggregation of overlapping regimes, norms, and organizations.
- International law & legitimacy
- Growth of human rights norms; multilateralism is the essence of liberal strategy.
- Non-state actors can be independent variables shaping state behavior.
The Identity Perspective
- Core causal arrow: Ideas, norms, and identities ā interests & behavior.
- Constructivism
- Reality is socially constructed; āanarchy is what states make of it.ā
- Two strands: social constructivism (structures shape agents) vs. agent-oriented (agents reproduce/change structures).
- Example: Gorbachev redefined Soviet identity, enabling end of Cold War.
- Identity typology (Table 1-7 excerpt)
- Internal dimension (democracy vs. non-democracy) Ć external dimension (cooperative vs. conflictual historical memories).
- Creates matrix of relative & shared identities (e.g., U.S.āU.K. = strongest convergence; U.S.āChina today = weakest).
- Democratic Peace hypothesis
- Democracies rarely fight one another; shared liberal identities + institutions help escape the security dilemma even when power is equal.
- Other strands
- Soft power (attraction, culture), belief systems, psychology (cognitive biases).
- Feminism: critiques male bias in IR; may align with critical theory; distinguishes rationalist feminists (work within positivist methods).
Critical Theory Perspectives
- Common features
- Normative, forward-looking; question taken-for-granted structures; history is contingent.
- Marxism
- Focus on class, economic exploitation; globalization and digital divide ā inequality; calls for radical redistribution.
- Historical examples: Russia (1917), China (1949).
- Post-modernism
- āDeconstructā dominant discourses; expose marginalization by Western, patriarchal, or colonial narratives.
- Power is embedded in language and knowledge production.
Levels of Analysis
- Purpose: pinpoint origin of cause behind an outcome.
- Standard levels
- Systemic ā structure of international system (polarity, power distribution).
- Domestic ā internal characteristics of states (regime type, culture, economy).
- Individual ā leadersā perceptions, psychology, decision styles.
- Foreign-policy (sometimes treated as sub-systemic) ā interaction of domestic and external pressures on state decision-making.
- Interactions: The same causal substance (e.g., nationalism) may originate at different levels; outcomes often multi-causal.
Causal Arrows & Hypothesis Testing
- Causal arrows diagram potential directions of influence (e.g., systemic ā domestic or domestic ā systemic).
- Functions
- Provide hypotheses to guide empirical testing.
- Help scholars formulate āappropriateā policy responses by identifying the most important causes.
- Encourage researchers to uncover overlooked variables and gather supporting data.
Integrative Take-Aways
- Each perspective highlights a different independent variable (power, institutions, identities, structural injustice) and makes distinct policy prescriptions.
- Analytical pluralism is valuable: combining levels of analysis and perspectives yields a richer, more accurate understanding of complex events like 9/11, great-power rivalry, or climate governance.