APUSH Chapter 2-5 USHISTORY.ORG

Full Summary – Extended

British colonization of the New World began later than that of Spain and France due to internal religious conflicts and Spain's early dominance in exploration. By the time the British established Jamestown in 1607, Spain had already settled much of the Southwest, and France had claimed extensive territories between the Appalachian and Rocky Mountains. English interest in colonization increased under Queen Elizabeth I, who supported privateers like Francis Drake and Walter Raleigh. These sea captains initially focused on raiding Spanish ships rather than establishing colonies. The defeat of Spain's "invincible" Armada in 1588 marked the beginning of the decline of Spanish dominance, creating opportunities for English colonization efforts.

Early English colonization attempts faced numerous challenges. Queen Elizabeth I supported ventures led by explorers like Francis Drake, who raided Spanish ships for gold, but did not initially focus on establishing colonies. Humphrey Gilbert’s attempt to settle Newfoundland ended with his death at sea, while Walter Raleigh’s Roanoke Colony disappeared mysteriously, leaving behind only the word "CROATOAN." These early failures underscored the difficulties of establishing permanent settlements in the New World and highlighted the need for more organized efforts.

The development of joint-stock companies marked a significant shift in English colonization efforts. By 1600, England faced economic difficulties and a growing poor population. Richard Hakluyt proposed that New World colonies could alleviate these issues by providing new opportunities and challenging Spanish dominance. This led to the rise of joint-stock companies, where multiple investors shared the risks and potential returns of colonization. Unlike Spanish and French colonies, which were established under royal direction, English colonies were driven by private investors, including figures like Sir Francis Drake and Sir Walter Raleigh. This model of private investment played a crucial role in the establishment of enduring English settlements.

The Virginia Company of London, a joint-stock company, founded Jamestown in 1607 with hopes of discovering gold similar to Spanish successes in South America. However, the focus on gold led to neglect of essential tasks such as farming, resulting in severe food shortages, disease, and harsh winters. Leadership under John Smith, who enforced a "work or starve" policy, temporarily improved conditions, but after his departure, the colony faced even greater hardships, including a devastating "starving time" and instances of cannibalism. Despite attempts to sustain the colony with new arrivals and tobacco cultivation, the Virginia Company ultimately failed financially and was declared a royal colony in 1624. This marked the first English colony directly controlled by the Crown, highlighting the high risks and severe losses associated with early colonization efforts.

By 1618, the Virginia Company shifted focus from gold to finding viable economic ventures, leading to the discovery of tobacco as a lucrative crop. John Rolfe’s successful cultivation of Caribbean tobacco seeds in Virginia spurred a booming industry, with over a million and a half pounds of tobacco exported annually by 1630. This success spurred rapid expansion and increased labor demands. Indentured servants, who worked for several years in exchange for passage to Virginia and freedom dues, became crucial to meeting this labor demand. However, tensions with the Powhatan confederacy of Native Americans and a series of conflicts, including the devastating attack by Powhatan’s brother Opechancanough in 1622, marked the colony's early years.

In contrast to the southern colonies driven by economic opportunities, New England settlers, including the Pilgrims and Puritans, were motivated primarily by religious goals. Disillusioned with the Church of England, they sought to create a society reflecting their Calvinist beliefs. In 1620, the Pilgrims, initially bound for Virginia, landed at Cape Cod and established Plymouth Colony. Lacking a formal charter, they created the Mayflower Compact, which laid the foundation for self-governance and democratic principles in the New World. This early constitution influenced the development of future American political structures.

The Massachusetts Bay Colony, established in 1630 under John Winthrop, aimed to be a "city upon a hill," a model of Christian living. The colony grew rapidly, driven by religious zeal, but by the end of the 1630s, worldly concerns began to overshadow religious fervor. Puritan life in New England was marked by long life expectancy, high birth rates, and a strong emphasis on education, particularly for reading the Bible. Despite their strict religious practices, Puritans enjoyed community festivals and moderate drinking. The colony’s rigid discipline and religious governance also led to tensions and dissent, as seen in the cases of Anne Hutchinson and Roger Williams, who challenged Puritan authority and advocated for religious freedom and fair treatment of Native Americans. Williams eventually founded Rhode Island, a haven for religious dissenters.

As Massachusetts Bay expanded, settlers moved into new areas, such as Connecticut, where Thomas Hooker and his followers established Hartford in 1636. The Fundamental Orders of 1639, enacted in Connecticut, were the first written constitution in the Western Hemisphere and allowed broader political participation. New Haven Colony, founded by John Davenport, later merged with Connecticut, contributing to the region’s development. Meanwhile, in Salem, the witch trials of 1692 reflected the social and religious tensions of the time, leading to the execution of 20 individuals based on dubious evidence and mass hysteria.

The middle colonies, including Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey, and Delaware, were characterized by remarkable diversity in ethnic and religious composition. Settled by various European groups such as the English, Dutch, Germans, and Scots-Irish, these colonies became melting pots with a mix of cultures and beliefs. The fertile land supported agriculture, particularly wheat and corn, while cities like New York and Philadelphia grew as centers of trade and ideas. The region balanced aspects of both New England’s town life and the South’s plantation economy, creating a tolerant and thriving colonial society.

New Netherland, established by the Dutch in 1623, was later seized by the English in 1664 and renamed New York. The colony, initially focused on the fur trade and ruled harshly by Peter Stuyvesant, had a diverse population and left lasting Dutch cultural influences. Pennsylvania, founded by William Penn in 1681 as a refuge for Quakers, promoted religious freedom and peaceful relations with Native Americans. Philadelphia, designed by Penn, became a major colonial hub with its well-planned streets and squares.

Benjamin Franklin, born in Boston in 1706, exemplified the spirit of American ingenuity. As a successful printer and public servant in Philadelphia, he founded institutions such as a library and a hospital, and invented practical devices like bifocal glasses and the Franklin stove. His work in science and diplomacy earned international recognition, and his publications, including the Pennsylvania Gazette and Poor Richard's Almanac, became widely influential.

In the southern colonies, Virginia’s focus on cash crops like tobacco led to a reliance on both indentured servants and enslaved Africans. Maryland, founded by Lord Baltimore as a refuge for Catholics, faced tensions as Catholics became a minority. The headright system, which granted land to those who brought laborers, helped expand tobacco production but eventually gave way to a preference for African slavery after Bacon’s Rebellion in 1676. The Carolinas, developed after the restoration of the monarchy, had distinct economies: South Carolina thrived on rice and slavery, while North Carolina had smaller farms and fewer slaves. Georgia, founded by James Oglethorpe as a haven for debtors, faced difficulties with land distribution and restrictive laws, ultimately becoming a royal colony in 1752.

Overall, the development of the American colonies was shaped by a combination of economic aspirations, religious motivations, and diverse cultural influences, setting the stage for the eventual emergence of a unique and independent American identity.