The Self and Culture in Adolescence

Chapter 6: The Self

Psych 2220

Spring 2026

The Self and Culture

  • Self-Conceptions:

    • The concept of self is influenced by culture and changes with age.

    • Adolescents tend to think about themselves in more abstract and complex ways compared to children.

  • Self-Esteem (William James):

    • Defined as a person's overall sense of worth and well-being.

    • In the United States, there is a strong emphasis on the independent self.

    • Cultures that promote an independent, individualistic self encourage self-reflection.

    • The self is perceived as separate from others.

  • Collectivistic Cultures:

    • Emphasize an interdependent self.

    • Interests of the group take precedence over individual desires.

    • High self-regard is often not valued; relationships with others are prioritized.

The Adolescent "Self"

  • Actual Self vs. Possible Selves:

    • The concept of Possible Selves includes the "Ideal vs. Feared Self".

    • Requires the development of abstract thought, which emerges during adolescence.

    • The Possible Self exists only in an abstract form.

  • Discrepancy Effects:

    • Large discrepancies between actual and ideal selves can lead to internalized issues such as:

    • Depression

    • Feelings of inadequacy

    • Conversely, awareness of both selves can motivate adolescents and emerging adults.

  • Research Findings:

    • Delinquent adolescents show a developed feared self but a poorly developed ideal self.

False Self on Social Media

  • Definition of False Self (Winnicott):

    • Described as a “defensive facade,” where individuals present a persona that meets external expectations while concealing their true emotions and desires.

  • Negative Outcomes of Social Media Use:

    • Increased anxiety and pressure to conform to unrealistic standards.

    • Drive to curate an online image can lead to a fear of negative evaluation, exacerbating social media engagement to enhance the false self.

  • Social Comparison:

    • Heightens feelings of inadequacy and promotes excessive social media use.

    • Differences in usage patterns based on gender may exist.

Self-Esteem

  • Longitudinal Research Findings:

    • Self-esteem typically declines during early adolescence but rises through late adolescence and into emerging adulthood.

    • Early low self-esteem may correlate with the concept of the "imaginary audience"; adolescents become peer-oriented, leading to heightened self-consciousness regarding evaluations by peers.

    • As adolescents transition to later adolescence/emerging adulthood, their reliance on peer opinion diminishes.

  • Cultural Influences:

    • Variations exist in self-esteem across cultures; for instance, African Americans often exhibit higher self-esteem levels compared to other ethnic groups.

Baseline vs. Barometric Self-Esteem (M. Rosenberg)

  • Baseline Self-Esteem:

    • Defined as a stable, enduring sense of worth and well-being.

    • Attributes:

    • Low Baseline Self-Esteem:

      • Characterized by negative thinking, low expectations, lack of self-confidence, sadness, and feelings of awkwardness.

    • High Baseline Self-Esteem:

      • Includes confidence in one’s abilities, clarity of needs, ambition to succeed, goal orientation, and comfort with change.

  • Barometric Self-Esteem:

    • A fluctuating sense of worth that changes throughout the day.

    • Influenced by daily experiences; for instance, poor performance on an exam may lower barometric self-esteem without affecting baseline self-esteem.

    • During early adolescence, fluctuations in barometric self-esteem can be intense.

Experience Sampling Method Studies

  • Methodology:

    • Adolescents wear beepers to randomly record their moods, allowing researchers to track mood fluctuations.

  • Findings:

    • Adults and preadolescents also experience mood changes, but not as frequently or intensely as adolescents, particularly early adolescents.

    • A five-year study from ages 13 to 18 revealed a consistent pattern of diminished mood fluctuation with each passing year.

Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents (Harter, S.)

  • Domains of Adolescent Self-Image:

    • Eight domains include:

    • Scholastic competence

    • Social acceptance

    • Athletic competence

    • Physical appearance

    • Job competence

    • Romantic appeal

    • Behavioral conduct

    • Close friendship

  • Global Self-Esteem Connections:

    • Understanding which domain relates most closely to global self-esteem is crucial.

    • Gender differences may exist affecting the perception of self in these areas.

    • Adolescents may not require a positive self-image across all domains to achieve high global self-esteem; individual importance of each domain varies.

Physical Appearance

  • Gender Disparities:

    • Girls generally report lower self-esteem than boys during adolescence.

  • Research Findings on Physical Appearance:

    • A significant amount of research focuses on dissatisfaction with physical appearance, predominantly among white girls.

    • Some studies suggest African American girls tend to evaluate their physical appearance differently, while skin tone has been identified as a source of dissatisfaction among both African American and Asian girls.

Self-Esteem in Emerging Adults

  • Trends in Self-Esteem:

    • Research indicates that self-esteem tends to increase during emerging adulthood.

  • Factors Contributing to Increased Self-Esteem:

    • Greater comfort with physical appearance.

    • More stable relationships with parents.

    • Conclusion of high school stressors.

    • Increased control over social interactions and life choices (e.g., full-time work versus schooling).

Causes and Effects of Self-Esteem

  • Contrasts Between High vs. Low Self-Esteem:

    • Acceptance and approval from peers, teachers, and parents contribute to higher self-esteem.

    • Successful academic experiences enhance self-esteem.

  • Influence of Parenting:

    • Loving and supportive parents typically help to foster higher self-esteem in their children.

    • Indifferent or neglectful parenting is associated with lower self-esteem in children.

The Emotional Self

  • Adolescence as an Emotional Period:

    • Adolescents often experience emotional hardships, such as:

    • Anger

    • Sadness

    • Passion

  • Emotional Distress Reported by Adolescents:

    • Adolescents report feelings of awkwardness, loneliness, nervousness, and being ignored—more than double that of adults.

  • Possible Causes:

    • Emotional responses may be linked to brain development.

    • Adolescents might engage more emotion in decision-making (

    • Potential involvement of the frontal lobe).

  • Quotable Insight:

    • “Fearless to jumping off roofs, but terrified of having its love of Nickelback exposed.”

Erikson’s Theory of Identity

  • Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development:

    • Central themes include love, work, and ideology.

    • Adolescents experience an identity crisis characterized by increased self-reflection and the ability to view themselves abstractly.

  • Key Concepts:

    • Identity vs. Identity Confusion:

    • Identity formation does not solely occur in adolescence but is prominent and significant during this developmental period.

    • Erikson's lifespan model outlines how individuals grow, form identities, and adapt socially across different life stages.

  • Variability Across Contexts:

    • Identity can vary depending on social contexts (family, friends, coworkers) and may not culminate in a singular consistent self.

Ethnic Identity

  • Complex Identity Development:

    • Members of ethnic minorities may encounter more intricate identity development compared to those from the majority culture.

  • Jean Phinney’s Research:

    • Explores themes related to assimilation, marginality, separation, and biculturalism in ethnic identity development:

    • Assimilation:

      • Embracing new cultural values while leaving old ones behind.

    • Marginality:

      • Disconnect from both one's origin and majority cultures.

    • Separation:

      • Exclusively associating with one’s ethnic group while rejecting majority culture.

    • Biculturalism:

      • Developing a dual identity intertwining elements from both cultures.