Unit 3 Pre Ap biology

this is the cellular systems unit that focuses on the structure and function of cells, including their processes and interactions within larger biological systems. first is bio molecule

Bio molecules:

• ipids

• Essential macro molecules that store energy, provide insulation, and form cellular membranes. - Lipids, though they do not contain genetic material, primarily consist of fats, oils, and waxes that play a critical role in cellular structure and function.

• Lipids are also important for insulation and protection of organs, as well as aiding in the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins such as A, D, E, and K.

• Additionally, lipids contribute to signaling pathways and can act as hormones, influencing various physiological processes throughout the body. They are divided into several categories, including triglycerides, phospholipids, and cholesterol, each with distinct roles that are essential for maintaining a healthy biological system.

• Triglycerides: The main form of stored energy in the body, providing long-term energy reserves.

• Phospholipids: Essential components of cell membranes, creating a barrier that regulates the movement of substances in and out of cells. These molecules arrange themselves into a bilayer structure, with hydrophilic heads facing outward towards the aqueous environment and hydrophobic tails facing inward, thus maintaining the integrity of the cell membrane.

• Cholesterol: A type of lipid that is necessary for synthesizing steroid hormones and is a precursor for vitamin D, also stabilizing cell membranes. Cholesterol helps maintain proper membrane fluidity over a range of temperatures.

• Steroids: Another category of lipids that serve as hormones, playing critical roles in metabolism, immune function, and development. Examples include testosterone, estrogen, and cortisol.

• Waxes: A class of lipids known for their hydrophobic properties, serving protective functions in plants and animals, such as preventing water loss and providing structural support. In plants, waxes form a protective layer on leaves, while in animals, they protect and lubricate skin and feathers. -

• Glycerolipids: These lipids are crucial for energy storage and are involved in signaling pathways within the cell. They are composed of glycerol and fatty acids, participating in various metabolic processes. - Fatty Acids: Building blocks of many lipids, including triglycerides and phospholipids. They play vital roles in cellular energy storage and membrane structure and can be saturated (containing no carbon-carbon double bonds) or unsaturated (containing one or more carbon-carbon double bonds), influencing their physical properties and functions.

• Phospholipids: Essential components of cell membranes, they consist of two fatty acids and a phosphate group, creating a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tails that facilitate membrane fluidity and integrity. The amphipathic nature of phospholipids is crucial for the formation of lipid bilayers in cell membranes.

• Steroids: This class of lipids, characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings, plays significant roles in cell signaling and structural integrity, as well as serving as precursors to hormones and vitamins. Steroids like cholesterol are crucial for the synthesis of various hormones and maintaining cell membrane stability.

• proteins

• : Polymers of amino acids linked by peptide bonds, they function in various roles, including as enzymes, structural components, and signaling molecules, which are crucial for cellular processes and overall organism functionality.

• Proteins have involvement in the immune system with antibodies whose function is to identify and neutralize foreign invaders such as bacteria and viruses, thus playing a key role in protecting the body against infections.

• Additionally, proteins serve as transport mechanisms in the blood, aiding in the movement of oxygen and nutrients to cells, while also facilitating communication between different cells through various signaling pathways. For instance, hemoglobin is a protein that transports oxygen in red blood cells.

• They also play a significant role in muscle contraction and movement, as well as functioning as reserves of amino acids that can be utilized when the body is in need. Actin and myosin are proteins essential for muscle contraction.

• Approximately 20% of our bodies are made of proteins, which underscores their importance in overall health and physiological functions.

• Proteins are polymers made of monomers called amino acids, which link together through peptide bonds to form complex structures essential for their diverse functions in the body. There are 20 different amino acids that can combine in numerous sequences to form diverse proteins.

• Overall, proteins are essential for maintaining homeostasis, regulating biochemical reactions (as enzymes), and providing structural support to cells and tissues. Enzymes like amylase and lipase are crucial for digestion by catalyzing the breakdown of carbohydrates and fats, respectively.

• carbohydrates

• Carbohydrates are another vital macronutrient that serves several key functions in the body. They primarily act as a source of energy, providing fuel for the brain and muscles during physical activity. Glucose is a primary energy source for cells.

• Additionally, carbohydrates contribute to the structural integrity of cells through components like cellulose in plant cell walls and glycoproteins that serve critical cellular functions. Cellulose provides rigidity to plant cell walls, while glycoproteins are involved in cell recognition and signaling.

• Carbohydrates also play a significant role in cellular communication and signaling, as they can be involved in the formation of receptors and other molecules that mediate interactions between cells. Glycolipids on the cell surface are involved in cell-cell interactions.

• Furthermore, they are important for storing energy in the form of glycogen in animals, which can be quickly mobilized during periods of high demand. Glycogen is stored in the liver and muscles and broken down into glucose when energy is needed. - In addition to these functions, carbohydrates are also essential for maintaining a healthy digestive system, as dietary fiber—which is a type of carbohydrate—helps regulate bowel movements and promotes overall gut health. Fiber adds bulk to the diet, preventing constipation and promoting regular bowel movements. - Overall, the diverse roles of carbohydrates illustrate their significance in not only providing energy but also in supporting various physiological processes critical for maintaining homeostasis and overall health.

• - nucleic acids - Nucleic acids help with enzyme acceleration, therefore making reactions inside of cells happen faster.

• Furthermore, nucleic acids play a crucial role in storing and transmitting genetic information, ensuring that cellular functions are carried out correctly by facilitating protein synthesis and regulating gene expression. DNA stores genetic information, while RNA is involved in protein synthesis. - In addition, nucleic acids are involved in cellular signaling pathways, contributing to the overall regulation of metabolic processes and cellular responses. Nucleic acids like ATP (adenosine triphosphate) participate in energy transfer within the cell.

• They also have a structural role in cellular processes, forming the backbone of key molecules such as DNA and RNA, which are essential for cellular integrity and function. The sugar-phosphate backbone provides structural support to DNA and RNA molecules.

• Moreover, their ability to undergo mutations and recombination contributes to genetic diversity, which is vital for evolution and adaptation within populations. Mutations in DNA can lead to new traits and adaptations.

• Overall, understanding the functions and dynamics of nucleic acids is fundamental in biology, as it not only sheds light on the mechanisms of life but also has implications for biotechnology and medicine.

• Nucleic acids are initially created by a genetic mutation inside of organisms, leading to variations in their sequence and structure. These genetic changes can arise from environmental factors or errors during DNA replication, further contributing to the diversity observed in the genetic makeup of species. Exposure to radiation or chemicals can induce mutations in DNA.

  Macromolecules

• Nucleic Acids: Essential macromolecules that include DNA and RNA, playing crucial roles in storing and transmitting genetic information. DNA contains the instructions for protein synthesis, while RNA helps in translating these instructions.

• Proteins: Macromolecules composed of amino acids that perform a variety of functions, including catalyzing biochemical reactions, providing structural support, and facilitating communication between cells. Enzymes are proteins that catalyze biochemical reactions, while structural proteins like collagen provide support to tissues.

• Carbohydrates: Organic compounds that serve as energy sources and structural components for living organisms, consisting of sugars and their polymers. Glucose is a primary energy source, while cellulose provides structural support in plants.

• Lipids: Diverse group of hydrophobic molecules that include fats, oils, and steroids, functioning primarily in energy storage, cell membrane structure, and signaling

• . Fats store energy, phospholipids form cell membranes, and steroids act as hormones. together the four macromolecules make up the majority of dry weight in a cell (water, a small molecule, makes up the majority of the wet weight). Large biological molecules perform a wide range of jobs in an organism. Some carbohydrates store fuel for future energy needs, and some lipids are key structural components of cell membranes. Nucleic acids store and transfer hereditary information, much of which provides instructions for making proteins. Proteins themselves perhaps have the broadest range of functions: some provide structural support, but many are like little machines that carry out specific tasks within the cell, such as transporting molecules, responding to environmental signals, and catalyzing metabolic reactions, or receiving and transmitting signals. Others are involved in immune responses, and some regulate gene expression, showcasing the intricate roles that proteins play in maintaining cellular homeostasis and overall organismal health. The interplay between these macromolecules underscores their collective importance in biochemical processes, illustrating how the structure and function of each type are tailored to meet the specific needs of the cell.

• Monomers and polymers - Monomers are the basic building blocks of macromolecules, each representing a single unit that can join together to form larger structures known as polymers.

• Polymers are created through dehydration synthesis, a process where monomers are bonded together through the removal of a water molecule. They can vary significantly in size and function within the cell, contributing to the diversity of macromolecules. The final shape and properties of these polymers are determined by the sequence and type of monomers that make them up. most large biological molecules are polymers, long chains made up of repeating molecular subunits or building blocks called monomers. If you think of monomers as being like a bead, then polymers would be analogous to a necklace, where each bead contributes to the overall design and function of the piece. Carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and proteins are often found as long polymeric chains because of their large size and complex structures, which allow them to perform vital roles in biological processes such as energy storage, genetic information transmission, and catalyzing biochemical

  

• reactions. monomers→polymer →macromolecules ![null]()carbohydrates are organic molecules made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio. (C_nH_{2n}O_n). This means for every one carbon atom, there are 2 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen atom. Sugars and starches are both types of carbohydrates. These carbohydrates can be broken down to produce a fast source of energy for cells. Remember, all living organisms have to obtain and use energy. Carbohydrates provide that fast-acting energy for living organisms, making them essential for survival. Additionally, they serve as structural components in cells, supporting cell walls in plants and contributing to the overall integrity of biological structures. In summary, carbohydrates play a crucial role not only as a primary energy source but also in maintaining the structure and function

  

Enzymes & substrates

• enzymes are typically made up of the bio molecule of proteins, which act as catalysts to speed up chemical reactions in the body. They lower the activation energy needed for reactions to occur, allowing metabolic processes to proceed efficiently. Enzymes have specific active sites that bind to substrates, forming an enzyme-substrate complex, which is essential for facilitating various biochemical reactions. (this in a simpilar form is pretty much the enzymes which is a protein is basically a big packman that eats substrates and breaks them down into smaller units, allowing the body to utilize the resulting molecules for energy or to build new compounds and the active site is where the enzyme and substrate meet)

• In order to function efficiently, enzymes need to be at an ideal pH and temperature.Different enzymes have different ideal pH and temperature conditions. If the pH or temperature is extreme for a particular enzyme, it can even denature an enzyme, which can prevent it from binding and acting on its substrate. For the following two scenarios, name the variable (temperature or pH) that is affecting the function of the enzyme.

• proteins are made up of monomers called amino acids and they have diffrent structure based on what they doEach enzyme's structure is crucial, as it determines the shape and arrangement of the active site, allowing for specific interactions with substrates.

• Scenario A: High temperature - Variable: Temperature

• Scenario B: Low pH - Variable: pH

• structural component- helps with structure & supporting the ceels & allowing the body to move

• Transport function - facilitates the movement of molecules across cell membranes, enabling vital processes such as nutrient uptake and waste removal.

• Enzymatic activity - catalyzes biochemical reactions essential for metabolism, ensuring that cellular processes occur at a sustainable rate. Cell signaling - mediates communication between cells by transmitting signals through various pathways, allowing for coordinated responses to environmental changes. Cell adhesion - plays a crucial role in maintaining the integrity of tissues by promoting the binding of cells to one another and to the extracellular matrix. Overall, the low pH environment can significantly impact these functions, leading to disruptions in homeostasis and impairing cellular activities. In addition to these roles, low pH can also influence metabolic rates by altering enzyme activity and affecting cellular respiration, which may result in reduced energy production and overall cellular dysfunction.

parts to an enzymee reaction

• -ase (enzyme)

• active site

• substrate

• substrate binding

• products

• enzyme activity

ATP(Adenosine TriPhosphate)

• ATP is a biomolecule and the biomolecule is nucleic acid

• ATP is a part of acycle that basically adds and removes one of its 3 phosphates thats why its called adebosine TRIphosphate because of the 3 phosphates it has .

• When one phosphate group is removed, ATP is converted into ADP (Adenosine Diphosphate), releasing energy that is utilized by cells for various biochemical processes.

• This process is reversible; when ADP gains a phosphate group, it reverts back to ATP, thereby allowing cells to store and utilize energy as needed.

• This cycling between ATP and ADP is crucial for maintaining energy balance within the cell, enabling continuous bioenergetic activities essential for cellular functions.

• Additionally, the cycle is regulated by enzymes that facilitate the phosphorylation and dephosphorylation processes, ensuring that ATP levels remain stable to meet the energy demands of the cell.

• In summary, the ATP-ADP cycle plays a pivotal role in cellular metabolism, providing a rapid response system to fluctuating energy requirements, thereby supporting critical processes such as muscle contraction, nerve impulse propagation, and biochemical synthesis.

• some main uses for atp is: active transport, muscle contraction, cell signaling, marveling at the beguning of cilla hair, chromosomes being seperated, binding the corect amino acid to rna

• Active transport: ATP provides the energy needed to move molecules across cell membranes against their concentration gradient.

• Muscle contraction: ATP is essential for the energy-dependent interactions between actin and myosin filaments in muscle fibers.

• Cell signaling: ATP acts as a signaling molecule in various pathways, influencing cellular responses.

• Ciliary movement: ATP fuels the movement of cilia, which are hair-like structures involved in locomotion and material transport.

• Chromosome separation: ATP is critical during cell division, providing energy for the separation of chromatids during mitosis and meiosis.

• Amino acid activation: ATP binds to amino acids, activating them and linking them to their corresponding tRNA for protein synthesis.

• ATP +H2o→ADP+Pi+ADP= ATP This reaction illustrates the hydrolysis of ATP, where energy is released to drive various cellular processes.

  Parts of a cell

difusion in a cell is the process by which molecules move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration, allowing for the efficient transport of substances across the cell membrane. In addition to vacuoles, lysosomes are another type of membrane-bound organelle that contain enzymes for digesting cellular waste and recycling materials. The interplay between vacuoles and lysosomes highlights the importance of these organelles in cellular homeostasis, as they both contribute to the regulation of internal environments and waste management within the cell. Understanding the functions of vacuoles and lysosomes is essential for grasping how plant cells and other eukaryotic cells maintain their health and functionality. Furthermore, vacuoles play a significant role in plant growth by expanding and aiding in cell elongation, which is particularly important during the development of young tissues. Similarly, lysosomes are crucial during autophagy, a process where they break down damaged organelles and macromolecules, thus ensuring cellular integrity and support during stress conditions. In summary, the collaboration between vacuoles and lysosomes underscores their vital roles not only in waste disposal but also in nutrient recycling and energy metabolism, further enhancing our understanding of cellular dynamics.

• cohesion is a key property that aids in maintaining the structure of plant tissues, allowing for effective water transport, nutrient distribution, and overall plant stability. This property is largely attributed to the hydrogen bonding between water molecules, which not only facilitates the upward movement of water through xylem vessels but also impacts the hydration status of the cells, thereby influencing physiological processes such as photosynthesis and transpiration.

• adhesion is another essential property that works in concert with cohesion to ensure the proper functioning of plant systems. While cohesion helps water move through the plant, adhesion allows water molecules to adhere to the walls of the xylem vessels, aiding in the upward movement against gravity. This interplay between cohesion and adhesion is crucial for survival, as it enables plants to effectively transport essential nutrients and maintain hydration during varying environmental conditions. Additionally, the synergistic effects of cohesion and adhesion contribute to capillary action, which is the mechanism that facilitates the movement of water from the roots to the leaves.

• cappillary action is vital for the plant's ability to access water and nutrients from the soil, as it allows water to be drawn up through tiny capillaries in the xylem and reach even the most distant leaves, supporting overall growth and vitality. Furthermore, this process is essential for photosynthesis, as it ensures that adequate water is available for the plant to convert sunlight into energy, ultimately supporting growth and reproduction.

• surface tension also plays a significant role in capillary action, as it results from the cohesive forces between water molecules, allowing the liquid to maintain its shape and resist external forces that might disrupt its upward movement.

• universal solvent properties of water further enhance its role in biological systems, as it can dissolve a wide range of substances, ensuring that essential minerals and nutrients are readily available for plant uptake.

• vaculoe is a membrane-bound organelle that stores nutrients, waste products, and helps maintain turgor pressure in plant cells, contributing to overall cell structure and stability.

• runoff from precipitation is crucial in the water cycle, influencing the availability of freshwater in ecosystems and facilitating the transport of dissolved nutrients and minerals back into the soil.

• transperation is a vital process in plants where water evaporates from the leaves, creating a negative pressure that helps draw water and dissolved nutrients upwards from the roots through the xylem.

• osmosis is the movement of water molecules across a selectively permeable membrane from an area of lower solute concentration to an area of higher solute concentration, playing a key role in maintaining cell homeostasis and supporting primary cellular functions.

photosythesis and cellular resperation

are interconnected processes that convert light energy into chemical energy in the form of glucose, while releasing oxygen as a byproduct; cellular respiration then utilizes this glucose to produce ATP, the energy currency of the cell, by breaking it down in the presence of oxygen.

the reactents of the chemical reaction of photosythesis is carbon dioxide and water (6H2O +6CO2), and after photo sythsis is complete the products of it is glucose and oxygen (c6H12O6 +6O2)

• Photosythesis equation - 6CO2+6H2O → C6H12O6(glucose) + 6O2(oxygen), illustrating how carbon dioxide and water, using light energy, are transformed into glucose and oxygen.

• Cellular resperation equation -C6H12O6+6O2→6CO2+6H20+ATP,

  demonstrating how glucose and oxygen are converted back into carbon dioxide and water, while releasing energy stored in the form of ATP, essential for various cellular processes.