Stress-An unpleasant physical or psychological reaction to circumstances perceived as challenging.

• Flight-or-flight response-An automatic emotional and physical reaction to a perceived threat that prepares one to either attack it or run away from it.

• Stressor-Any event or change in one’s life that causes stress.

• Primary appraisal and secondary appraisal- The way you determine how stressful an event is to you and The way you determine how capable you are of coping with an event.

Health Psychology- A basic research specialization in which psychologists focus on the relationship between mind and body.

General Adaptation Syndrome- A widely accepted understanding of the way the body responds to ongoing stress, consisting of the sequence of alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.

• Stages: Alarm, resistance, exhaustion -

Immune system-The body’s innate method of defending against bacteria, viruses, infections, injuries, and anything else that could cause illness or death.

Psychophysiological illnesses- Any illness that stress can cause, worsen, or maintain.

Stress and personality types-

• Type A- personality featuring high levels of competitiveness, drive, impatience, and hostility.

• Type B- personality in which the person is noncompetitive, easygoing, relaxed, and rarely angry

• Type C- personality featuring a low level of emotional expression, a high level of agreeableness with other people, and a tendency to feel helpless.

• Type D personalities- personality featuring high levels of negative emotions, like depression and anxiety, and a reluctance to share those emotions with others.

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)-A psychological disorder lasting at least a month characterized by feeling continuously on edge, avoiding reminders of the traumatic event, having difficulty sleeping and concentrating, and frequently recalling or reliving the event.

Coping- Efforts to reduce or manage an experience of stress.

• Problem-focused coping- A style of coping with stress that emphasizes changing the stressor itself.

• emotion-focused coping- A style of coping with stress that emphasizes changing your emotional reaction to the stressor.

• Hardiness- Behaviors that reflect resilience under stressful circumstances.

• Optimism- An attitude toward the future characterized by hope or expectation of a positive outcome.

Personality- A person’s distinctive and stable way of thinking, feeling, and behaving.

Psychodynamic Theory of Personality, Freud-An explanation of personality, based on the ideas of Sigmund Freud, that emphasizes unconscious forces and early childhood experiences.

• Unconscious- Mental activity of which the person is unaware.

• Freudian slips- Verbal or behavioral mistakes that reveal unconscious thoughts or wishes.

• Id- the animalistic part of the mind that generates our most basic, biologically based impulses, such as sex and aggression.

• Ego- the part of the mind that serves as a realistic mediator between the id and superego.

• Supergo- the part of the mind that opposes the id by enforcing rules, restrictions, and morality.

• defense mechanisms: repression, denial, displacement, sublimation

• Psychosexual Stages of Development- Freud’s five biologically based developmental stages of childhood, during which personality characteristics are formed.

  • Oral stage- which takes place from birth to about 18 months and focuses on the psychological consequences of feeding behavior.

  • anal stage- which lasts from about age 18 months to about age 3, and focuses on the psychological consequences of toilet training.

  • phallic stage- which runs from 3 to 6 years old and focuses on the psychological consequences of attraction to the opposite-sex parent.

  • latency stage - which lasts through the elementary school years, when the child’s energies are focused primarily on school and other tasks that have little to do with sexual or bodily issues.

  • Genital stage- which lasts from puberty through adulthood and focuses on mature, adult sexual relationships.

  • Fixation- Freud’s term for a lingering psychological problem directly related to unsuccessful experience of a particular psychosexual stage.

  • Oedipus complex- The childhood experience of desiring the mother and resenting the father.

  • Electra complex- The childhood experience of desiring the father and resenting the mother

Humanistic Theory of Personality- A theory based on the ideas of Carl Rogers that emphasizes people’s inherent tendencies toward healthy, positive growth and self-fulfillment.

Carl Rogers- Developed the humanistic approach to psychology, which emphasizes empathy, unconditional positive regard, and the importance of the client-therapist relationship in facilitating personal growth and self-actualization.

Abraham Maslow - Developed the hierarchy of needs theory, which describes human motivation as a progression from basic physiological needs to higher-level psychological needs.

• positive regard- Warmth, acceptance, and love from those around a person.

• conditions of worth- Requirements that you must meet to earn a person’s positive regard.

• real self- The version of yourself that you actually experience in day-to-day life.

• ideal self- the self-actualized version of yourself that you naturally strive to become.

• Self-concept- Your view of who you are.

• Incongruence- A mismatch between your real self and your ideal self.

• congruence- A match between your real self and your ideal self.

Social-Cognitive Theory of Personality- A theory that emphasizes the interaction of environment, thought processes, and social factors.

• Reciprocal determinism- The theory that three factors—behavior, environment, and cognitions—continually influence each other.

• Self-efficacy- Your beliefs about your own capabilities.

Trait theory of Personality- A theory that emphasizes the discovery and description of the basic components of personality.

• Five-Factor Model of Personality- An explanation of personality that emphasizes five fundamental traits present in all people to varying degrees.

• (Big Five): neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, conscientiousness, agreeableness

Personality tests,

• Objective Personality Tests: Personality tests in which the client responds to a standardized set of questions, usually in multiple-choice or true–false format.

• MMPI-2- A widely used and respected objective personality test that emphasizes mental disorders.

• Projective Personality Tests: Personality tests in which clients respond to ambiguous stimuli in a free-form way.

• Rorschach inkblot technique- A projective personality test in which the client responds to 10 inkblot images.

Social Psychology- (1) A basic research specialization in which psychologists focus on how people think about, influence, and relate to each other. (2) The scientific study of how people think about, influence, and relate to each other.

Social cognition - A person’s thoughts about other people and the social world.

• Attribution- An explanation of the cause of behavior.

• Attribution theory- A theory that behavior is caused either by traits within the individual or by the situation surrounding the individual.

• Fundamental attribution error- Overestimating the importance of traits and underestimating the importance of the situation when explaining the behavior of other people.

• Attitude- A viewpoint, often influenced by both thoughts and emotions, that affects a person’s responses to people, things, or situations.

  • Social Role-A title, position, or status that carries expectations for acceptable behavior.

  • Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment- Zimbardo's Stanford Prison Experiment was a controversial study in which participants were randomly assigned to be either guards or prisoners in a simulated prison environment, revealing how quickly individuals can conform to social roles and engage in abusive behavior.

  • Cognitive dissonance - The discomfort caused by having an attitude that contradicts another attitude or a behavior.

Social influence

• Conformity- Changes in an individual’s behavior to correspond to the behavior of a group of other people.

• Obedience- Changes in an individual’s behavior to comply with the demands of an authority figure.

• Deindividuation- A loss of identity and accountability experienced by individuals in groups that can lead to atypical behavior.

• social facilitation- An increase in individual performance caused by the presence of other people.

• social loafing - A decrease in individual performance when tasks are done in groups.

• Groupthink- A phenomenon that occurs when group members value getting along with each other more than finding the best solution.

Social relations

• Prejudice- An often negative attitude toward a social group that is formed before getting to know group members.

• Stereotype- Beliefs about a group’s characteristics that are applied very generally, and often inaccurately, to group members.

• discrimination- (1) Action based on prejudice or stereotypes toward a social group. (2) The learning process by which stimuli that are different from the conditioned stimulus fail to cause the same conditioned response.

• Ingroup vs. outgroup - A social group to which a person believes he or she belongs (“us”). And A social group to which a person believes he or she does not belong (“them”).

• Aggression-Behavior intended to cause harm or death.

• Attraction: Proximity and mere exposure, physical attractiveness, similarity, reciprocal liking

Prosocial behavior- Behavior intended to help others.

• Altruism- Completely unselfish concern for others.

• Bystander effect- The decrease in likelihood that one person will help another person caused by the presence of others also available to help.

• Diffusion of responsibility- A decreased sense of obligation to help when others are present.

Psychological Disorder: A mental health condition that causes significant distress or impairment in daily functioning, characterized by abnormal thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

Medical student syndrome: A psychological phenomenon where medical students begin to experience symptoms of the diseases they are studying.

Abnormality: A deviation from what is considered normal or typical behavior.

Infrequency, deviation from social norms, personal distress, impairment in daily functioning: Four criteria that are commonly used to determine abnormality.

Theories of Abnormality: Various explanations for why psychological disorders occur, including biological, psychological, sociocultural, and biopsychosocial perspectives.

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition (DSM-5): A classification system used by mental health professionals to diagnose and categorize psychological disorders.

Anxiety disorders: A group of mental health conditions characterized by excessive and persistent worry, fear, and anxiety. Examples include Generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, specific phobia, social anxiety disorder.

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD): A type of anxiety disorder characterized by repetitive thoughts and behaviors.

Major depressive disorder: A mental health condition characterized by persistent feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and lack of interest in activities.

Bipolar disorder: A mood disorder characterized by episodes of mania and depression.

Eating disorders: A group of mental health conditions characterized by unhealthy eating habits and distorted body image. Examples include anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge-eating disorder.

Schizophrenia: A severe mental disorder characterized by symptoms such as psychosis, hallucinations, delusions, flat affect, and cognitive symptoms.

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): A neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.

Autism Spectrum Disorder: A neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by difficulties in social interaction, communication, and repetitive behaviors.

Dissociative disorders: A group of mental health conditions characterized by disruptions in memory, consciousness, or identity. Examples include dissociative amnesia and dissociative identity disorder.

Personality disorders: A group of mental health conditions characterized by enduring patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that deviate from cultural expectations. Examples include antisocial personality disorder and borderline personality disorder.

Charles Silverstein, Ph.D.: A psychologist who has written extensively on gay and lesbian issues.

Psychotherapy: A type of treatment that involves talking with a trained mental health professional to explore and manage psychological difficulties.

Psychodynamic therapy: A type of psychotherapy that focuses on unconscious processes and past experiences.

Person-centered therapy: A type of psychotherapy that emphasizes the therapist's empathy, unconditional positive regard, and genuineness.

Behavior Therapy: A type of psychotherapy that focuses on changing behaviors through conditioning.

Cognitive Therapy: A type of psychotherapy that focuses on changing thought patterns to manage psychological difficulties.

Cognitive-Behavior Therapy: A type of psychotherapy that combines cognitive and behavior therapy techniques.

Eclectic Approach: A type of psychotherapy that combines different therapeutic techniques based on the individual's needs.

Integrative Approach: A type of psychotherapy that combines different theoretical perspectives and therapeutic techniques.

Group therapy and self-help group: Forms of therapy that involve individuals meeting with others who have similar psychological difficulties to gain support, learn coping strategies, and improve social skills.

Evidence-based practice: A type of therapy that uses scientific evidence to guide treatment decisions.

Therapeutic alliance: The relationship between the therapist and the client, which is essential to the success of therapy.

Cultural competence

Confidentiality

Biomedical Therapy

• Psychopharmacology: The treatment of psychological disorders with medications.

• Antipsychotic drugs: medications that are used to treat symptoms of psychosis, such as delusions and hallucinations.

• Antianxiety drugs: medications that are used to reduce symptoms of anxiety and panic disorders.

• Antidepressant drugs: medications that are used to treat symptoms of depression.

• Mood stabilizing drugs: medications that are used to treat bipolar disorder and stabilize mood swings.

• Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)- A biomedical therapy for severe disorders in which an electric current passes through the brain of the client.

• Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)- A treatment for depression in which a weak electric current repeatedly pulses through a paddle-shaped magnetic coil just outside the person’s head.

Alberta Banner Turner, Ph.D.- A professional with a Doctor of Philosophy degree in psychology, who may have expertise in various subfields of psychology, such as clinical psychology, social psychology, cognitive psychology, or developmental psychology. Specific areas of research and practice may vary depending on the individual's background and interests.