lecture 4

President Kennedy's Civil Rights Bill

President Kennedy supported a civil rights bill that lacked strong backing from civil rights activists.

Fred Shuttlesworth, a key activist, invited Martin Luther King Jr. and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) to Birmingham, known as "Bombingham" due to 18 unsolved bombings in black neighborhoods.
Birmingham's city government underwent changes, moving from a three-man commission to an elected mayor system.
Bull Connor, Commissioner of Public Safety, was a significant figure in promoting racial hatred but was replaced by more moderate Albert Boutwell.

The SCLC initiated Project C for Consultation on Birmingham, aiming to address segregation in public facilities.
On April 3, 1963, protests began with sit-ins and the release of the Birmingham manifesto for desegregation of public facilities.
Police arrested 45 protesters on April 6, with escalating violence leading to more arrests and confrontations.

Judge W. A. Jenkins Jr. issued orders preventing civil rights leaders from organizing protests, highlighting systemic racism in judicial decisions.

Martin Luther King Jr. was arrested on Good Friday, April 12, 1963, for defying a court order, leading to his solitary confinement.
While in jail, he responded to criticism from local white ministers, leading to the famous "Letter from Birmingham Jail."
Key excerpt: King criticized the idea of waiting for civil rights, stating it has historically meant never for African Americans.

SCLC planned "D-Day" with child and teenage participants to increase visibility; the intention was to create a moral outrage if children were arrested.
Over 900 children were arrested during protests on April 16, 1963, resulting in severe police reactions, including the use of fire hoses and police dogs against peaceful children.

Governor George Wallace stood against desegregation at the University of Alabama, leading President Kennedy to call for federal intervention, citing a moral crisis in America.
Following the televised address, Medgar Evers, NAACP leader, was assassinated, reflecting the ongoing violence against civil rights advocates.
Kennedy proposed a comprehensive civil rights bill targeting segregation, employment discrimination, and voting rights.

On August 28, 1963, a quarter of a million people participated in the March on Washington, where Martin Luther King Jr. delivered his iconic "I Have a Dream" speech.
This event significantly impacted civil rights sentiment, but violent events, including a church bombing in Birmingham, highlighted ongoing racial tensions.

The civil rights movement inspired Mexican and Mexican American communities, with Cesar Chavez emerging as a leader in labor rights through the National Farm Workers Union.
The UFW organized a nationwide grape boycott, demonstrating the effectiveness of economic protest.

Betty Friedan's "The Feminine Mystique" (1963) gave voice to women's discontent, contributing to a rise in awareness of gender discrimination.
Labor force participation among women increased, with greater recognition of sexual discrimination.

After Kennedy's assassination, President Johnson continued the push for civil rights legislation, advocating for a "Great Society" to combat poverty and injustice.
Johnson enacted significant laws including the Economic Opportunity Act and the Civil Rights Act of 1964.

Signed on July 2, 1964, this act prohibited racial discrimination in various public accommodations.
For the first time, gender was included as a category in anti-discrimination laws, complicating history as it was introduced as a potential vote deterrent by opponents.

The Civil Rights Act marked a pivotal moment in American history, providing a legal framework for desegregation and challenging social injustices against women and minorities.