lecture 4

President Kennedy's Civil Rights Bill

• President Kennedy supported a civil rights bill that lacked strong backing from civil rights activists.

Birmingham Activism

• Fred Shuttlesworth, a key activist, invited Martin Luther King Jr. and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) to Birmingham, known as "Bombingham" due to 18 unsolved bombings in black neighborhoods.

• Birmingham's city government underwent changes, moving from a three-man commission to an elected mayor system.

• Bull Connor, Commissioner of Public Safety, was a significant figure in promoting racial hatred but was replaced by more moderate Albert Boutwell.

Project C Launch

• The SCLC initiated Project C for Consultation on Birmingham, aiming to address segregation in public facilities.

• On April 3, 1963, protests began with sit-ins and the release of the Birmingham manifesto for desegregation of public facilities.

• Police arrested 45 protesters on April 6, with escalating violence leading to more arrests and confrontations.

Legal Challenges

• Judge W. A. Jenkins Jr. issued orders preventing civil rights leaders from organizing protests, highlighting systemic racism in judicial decisions.

King's Arrest

• Martin Luther King Jr. was arrested on Good Friday, April 12, 1963, for defying a court order, leading to his solitary confinement.

• While in jail, he responded to criticism from local white ministers, leading to the famous "Letter from Birmingham Jail."

• Key excerpt: King criticized the idea of waiting for civil rights, stating it has historically meant never for African Americans.

D-Day Demonstrations

• SCLC planned "D-Day" with child and teenage participants to increase visibility; the intention was to create a moral outrage if children were arrested.

• Over 900 children were arrested during protests on April 16, 1963, resulting in severe police reactions, including the use of fire hoses and police dogs against peaceful children.

Ongoing Resistance

• Governor George Wallace stood against desegregation at the University of Alabama, leading President Kennedy to call for federal intervention, citing a moral crisis in America.

• Following the televised address, Medgar Evers, NAACP leader, was assassinated, reflecting the ongoing violence against civil rights advocates.

• Kennedy proposed a comprehensive civil rights bill targeting segregation, employment discrimination, and voting rights.

March on Washington

• On August 28, 1963, a quarter of a million people participated in the March on Washington, where Martin Luther King Jr. delivered his iconic "I Have a Dream" speech.

• This event significantly impacted civil rights sentiment, but violent events, including a church bombing in Birmingham, highlighted ongoing racial tensions.

Latino Rights Movement

• The civil rights movement inspired Mexican and Mexican American communities, with Cesar Chavez emerging as a leader in labor rights through the National Farm Workers Union.

• The UFW organized a nationwide grape boycott, demonstrating the effectiveness of economic protest.

Women's Rights Movement

• Betty Friedan's "The Feminine Mystique" (1963) gave voice to women's discontent, contributing to a rise in awareness of gender discrimination.

• Labor force participation among women increased, with greater recognition of sexual discrimination.

Lyndon B. Johnson and The Great Society

• After Kennedy's assassination, President Johnson continued the push for civil rights legislation, advocating for a "Great Society" to combat poverty and injustice.

• Johnson enacted significant laws including the Economic Opportunity Act and the Civil Rights Act of 1964.

The Civil Rights Act of 1964

• Signed on July 2, 1964, this act prohibited racial discrimination in various public accommodations.

• For the first time, gender was included as a category in anti-discrimination laws, complicating history as it was introduced as a potential vote deterrent by opponents.

Conclusion

• The Civil Rights Act marked a pivotal moment in American history, providing a legal framework for desegregation and challenging social injustices against women and minorities.