Chapters 6-8 + special topic (PTSD and SUD)

Learning

Key Concepts

Acquisition: the formation of a conditioned response (initial stage of learning)

Extinction: the gradual weakening of a conditioned response tendency

Stimulus Generalization: the tendency to respond to new stimuli that resemble the original conditioned stimulus

Stimulus Discrimination: the ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other similar stimuli that have not been paired with an unconditioned stimulus

Shaping: a process where small steps are taken and reinforced in order to get to some bigger target behavior

Reinforcement: an action preformed after a response in order to increase the likelihood that a specific response will occur

Positive Reinforcement: the process of reinforcing a behavior by adding something positive in response to the desired behavior

Negative Reinforcement: the process of reinforcing a behavior by removing something unpleasant in response to the desired behavior

Punishment: a consequence that aims to reduce the likelihood of an undesirable response

Intermittent Reinforcement: when a response is reinforced only some of the time

Operant Chamber (Skinner Box): a small enclosure in which an animal can make a specific response that is recorded, while the consequences (reinforcements) are systematically controlled

Stimulus: any object or event that elicits a sensory or behavioral response in an organism

• Neutral Stimulus (NS): a stimulus that (initially) elicits no response

• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): a previously neutral stimulus, that, through conditioning, acquires the capacity to evoke a desired response

Elicited Response: a response that is drawn forward

• Unconditioned Response (UCR): a natural and unlearned response to unconditioned stimulus

• Conditioned Response (CR): a response learned from conditioned stimulus

Reinforcement Schedules: a set of rules that govern how often a behavior is reinforced

• Fixed Ratio (FR): when reinforcement is delivered after a predictable number of responses (e.g., after 2, 4, 6, and 8 responses)

  • Results: high response rate with pauses after reinforcement

• Variable Ratio (VR): when reinforcement is delivered at unpredictable time intervals (e.g., after 5, 7, 10, and 20 minutes)

  • Results: high and steady response rate

• Fixed Interval (FI): when reinforcement is delivered at predictable time intervals (e.g., after 5, 10, 15, and 20 minutes)

  • Results: moderate response rate with significant pauses after reinforcement

• Variable Interval (VI): when reinforcement is delivered at unpredictable time intervals (e.g., after 5, 7, 10, and 20 minutes)

  • Results: moderate yet steady response rate

Types of Learning

Classical Conditioning:

• A learning process in which a response initially triggered by one stimulus becomes associated with another stimulus through repeated pairings. Eventually, the first stimulus alone can elicit the learned response

• Works by regulating involuntary/reflexive responses

• Pioneered by conditioning dogs to salivate at the sound of a certain tone (Pavlov)

• Includes emotional and psychological responses (ex: fear, arousal, ect)

Operant Conditioning:

• A method of learning in which responses come to be controlled by their consequences

• Works by regulating voluntary, spontaneous responses

• Pioneered by punishing/rewarding rats and pigeons until they repeated responses with favorable outcomes (rewards) (Skinner)

Observational Learning:

• A process of learning by watching others (models), where the targeted behavior is watched, memorized, and then mimicked

• Both operant and classical conditioning can take place through observational learning

• Depends on attention, retention, reproduction and motivation

• Socially driven as both cognitive and environmental factors can determine behavior

Memory

Key Concepts

Primacy: the tendency to remember the first piece of information we encounter better than information presented later on

Recency: the tendency to recall the most recent information more accurately

Memory Retrieval: the process of getting information out of memory

Parapraxis (Freudian Slip): a slip of the tongue or pen, forgetfulness, misplacement of objects, or other error thought to reveal unconscious wishes or attitudes (recall is often guided by this)

Memory Confabulation: the distortion of an original memory potentially caused by misinformation

Pseudo-memories: false memories- seeming to remember events that never really occurred

Memory Consolidation: the transfer of information from working memory to long-term memory

Rehearsal: the mental repetition of incoming information

• Elaborative Rehearsal: the formation of associations and connections between new information and knowledge that has already been learned (ex: emotional cue)

• Maintenance Rehearsal: the process of repeatedly verbalizing or thinking about a piece of information

Von Restorff Effect (Isolation effect): when multiple similar objects are present, the one that differs from the rest is most likely to be remembered

Automatic Processing: a mental cognitive process that is fast, parallel, and efficient, and that does not require active control or attention

Mnemonics: memory devices that help learners recall larger pieces of information

• Clustering: organizing information in memory into related groups (chunking)

• Conceptual Hierarchy: a collection of objects, events, or other items with common properties arranged in a multilevel structure

• Schemas: a mental framework that helps individuals organize, process, and store information about their environment

• Semantic Networks: a representation of memory, consisting of nodes and edges, that describes the organization of declarative facts and knowledge in the mind

Ebbinghaus’ Forgetting Curve: most forgetting occurs very quickly after learning

Types of Memory

Sensory Memory:

• Preserves information in its original form for a very brief time (decay in 1/4 of a second)

• Can be decided into sub-types for each of the five senses:

  • Iconic: visual memory*

  • Echoic: auditory memory

  • Olfactory: memory of scent

  • Haptic: touch memory

  • Gustatory: memory of taste

Short-term Memory (STM):

• Maintains unrehearsed information for 10-20 seconds (“thinking”)

• Decays over time if not rehearsed

• Has a limited capacity as new information “pushes out” existing memories

• Can be used to transfer information to long-term memory

Working Memory (WM):

• Complex model of STM

• Refers to one’s ability to hold and manipulate information consciously

• Maintained through repetition and rehearsal

Long-term Memory (LTM):

• An unlimited capacity store that can hold information indefinitely

• Concussions often interrupt memory consolidation

• Traumatic memories tend to get consolidated into LTM

• The LTM system can be divided into three sections:

  • Episodic: the ability to recall and mentally reproduce specific episodes from one's personal past

  • Semantic: the memory of meaning, understanding, general knowledge about the world, and other concept-based knowledge unrelated to specific experiences

  • Procedural: implicit memory (unconscious, long-term memory) that aids the performance of particular types of tasks without conscious awareness of these previous experiences

Memory Errors (The 7 Sins):

1. Transience: decreasing accessibility of memory over time

2. Absentmindedness: lapses of attention- forgetting how to do things

3. Blocking: temporary inaccessibility of stored information

4. Misattribution: attributing memories to incorrect sources (ex. Pseudo-memories)

5. Suggestibility: implanted memories

6. Bias: retrospective distortions of memories produced by current knowledge and beliefs

7. Persistence: unwanted recollections that won’t go away

Thought and Language

Language- Key Concepts

Phonology: a language’s sound system

Morphology: a language’s guidelines for word formation

Syntax: a language’s set of rules for combining words and forming acceptable sentences (grammar)

Semantics: the meaning of words and sentences

Infinite Generativity:  the ability to produce an endless number of meaningful sentences using a finite set of words and rules

Language Acquisition: the process by which humans acquire the capacity to perceive and comprehend language (observational learning) happens in left hemisphere

Language develop

PTSD and SUD

Key Concepts

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD):Due to trauma exposure or stressful event of death, threatened death, actual or threatened serious injury, or actual or threatened sexual violence.

Substance Use Disorder (SUD):The overuse or dependence on a substance that is detrimental to one’s physical and mental health resulting in social consequences.

Public Safety Personnel (PSP): Correctional workers, police officers, paramedics, firefighters, dispatchers, and military.

Critical Incidents:

– Risk of operational stress injuries

– Primary presumptive factor

– Unique environment for correctional workers:

– Physical assault

– Threats of physical harm or death

– Confronting dead or mutilated bodies

Stigma: when one is perceived in a negative way because of a particular characteristic or attribute

Self-medication Theory: the use of substances to alleviate PTSD symptoms

Avoidance: avoiding a situation that may trigger memories of traumatic event, etc.

Arousal: difficulty sleeping, anger, irritability, etc

Intrusion: flashbacks, nightmares, etc.

Critical Incidents:

– Risk of operational stress injuries

– Primary presumptive factor

– Unique environment for correctional workers:

– Physical assault

– Threats of physical harm or death

– Confronting dead or mutilated bodies

Causal Model:

– Substance use results in an individual engaging in high-risk behaviour

– Associated with obtaining and using substances

– Leads to an increased risk of trauma exposure (Chilcoat & Bresleau, 1998)

– Partial support for this hypothesis

Shared Liability Model:

Co-morbidity of PTSD and SUD is dependent upon two broad high-order dimensions:

• Internalizing (directing stress inwards)

• Externalizing (directing stress outwards)

**Often present in an individual prior to trauma exposure (Krueger, 1999)

Indirect Variables

– Two indirect variables that contribute to the co-morbidity of PTSD and SUD:

1. Childhood trauma

2. Lack of social support

– Support is a protective factor

– Support needed to cope with both PTSD and SUD

– Partners recognized to be the key source of support

– Indirect humour and banter is a central feature to colleague interactions for positive support

– More emotional talk with partners and close family members (reserved in detail)

Implications - Stigmatization

– Limited studies available on mental health stigma for PSP outside of military

– Other PSP and military share unique aspects:

• Pre-employment mental health screening

• Access to employer-based health care

• Demographic higher in men than women

• Value self-resilience

Military-specific conceptual model–stigma presents in three forms:

• public stigma,

• self stigma

• label avoidance

• Self-Stigma: the extent to which the individual applies these stereotypes to oneself

• Public Stigma: the extent to which an individual is aware of stereotypes held by the public about those who seek mental health services

• Label Avoidance: the degree to which the individual deliberately ignores symptoms in order to avoid the negative stigma

Implications: Suicide

– Co-morbidity of PTSD and SUD leave PSP at a higher risk of death by suicide

– Risk of death by suicide in PSP increased due to:

– Less fear of death

– Lack of social support

– Sleep disturbances

– Access to lethal means (a specific risk factor for women)

– Women are more likely than men to report lifetime suicidal ideation, plans, and attempts

Treatment

Two types of treatment models:

1. Sequential Model of Treatment

2. Integrated Model of Treatment

Treatment: Sequential Model of Treatment

– SUD treated first and PTSD treatment deferred until a period of abstinence is obtained

– Belief that continued substance use during therapy will negatively impact PTSD treatment

– PTSD treatment may cause relapse in the individual

Model operates under Pandora’s Box Hypothesis:

– Addressing PTSD symptoms in early stages of SUD treatment results in an increase of negative affects, arousal of symptoms and a higher chance of relapse

– Little empirical data to support this

Future Directions

– Development and implementation of critical incident stress management to handle operational stress injuries within each PSP category to prevent co-morbid PTSD– SUD

– Research on the effectiveness of integrated treatment is needed in a range of settings (e.g., across different PSP categories)

– Further investigation needed to view mental health and critical incident differences in PSP categories

– Develop solutions to fully manage PSP risk of suicide through psychoeducation

Chapters 6-8 + special topic (PTSD and SUD)

Learning

Key Concepts

• Acquisition: The formation of a conditioned response.

• Extinction: Weakening of a conditioned response.

• Stimulus Generalization: Responding to stimuli resembling the original conditioned stimulus.

• Stimulus Discrimination: Differentiating between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli.

• Reinforcement: Action after a response to increase likelihood.

• Positive Reinforcement: Adding a positive stimulus to reinforce behavior.

• Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to reinforce behavior.

• Punishment: Consequence to reduce undesirable responses.

Types of Learning:

• Classical Conditioning: Learning process where a response is made associated with a new stimulus (Pavlov).

• Operant Conditioning: Learning through consequences (Skinner).

• Observational Learning: Learning by watching others.

Memory

Key Concepts

• Primacy & Recency: Remembering first and recent information better.

• Memory Consolidation: Transfer between working to long-term memory.

• Types of Memory: Sensory, Short-term, Working, Long-term.

PTSD and SUD

Key Concepts

• PTSD: Anxiety disorder stemming from trauma.

• SUD: Overdependence on substances affecting health.

• Causal Models: Relationship between high-risk behavior and substance use.

• Stigma: Negative perception due to characteristic or attribute.

• Co-morbidity of PTSD and SUD: Linked to internalizing and externalizing stress.

• Treatment Models: Sequential and Integrated treatment approaches.