IB Psychology Case Studies (SL)

Cognitive Approach

Robbins et al 1996 (The Chess Study)

• Aim

  • To see how interfering tasks would affect working memory performance

• Methods

  • 20 male chess players from Cambridge, UK, ranging skill level

  • View an arrangement of chess pieces and recreate the arrangement on a new board

  • Two Conditions: verbal and visuo-spatial interference

    • Verbal Int: Repeated the word “the” while viewing and recreating

    • Visuo-spatial int: tapped a sequence into a keypad in their laps while viewing and recreating

• Results

  • Average Scores

    • Verbal: 16/25 (64%)

    • Visuo-spatial: 4/25 (16%)

• Conclusions

  • Verbal int leads to higher scores b/c participants can use two different slave systems. (phono loop for “the'' and visuospatial sketchpad for chess pieces). Visuo-spatial int lead to using more capacity and lower scores

  • If working memory was all one system, there would be no difference.

  • This is evidence for different slave systems

• Research Method

  • True experiment

• Applications

  • Models of Memory

  • Working Memory Model

 Peterson and Peterson 1959 (Trigrams and STS Duration)

• Aim

  • To test the duration of the short-term memory store.

• Methods

  • Participants to remember trigrams (PTR, MPT, XTB, etc.)

  • After hearing, participants counted backwards in 3s from a random number to prevent rehearsal

  • This stopped the info from traveling to long-term memory store

  • Delays were 0, 6, 12, or 18 seconds

• Results

  • As the time delay increased, memory for trigrams decreased. 

  • After 18 seconds, there was almost 0 ability to recollect

• Conclusions

  • Avg duration of STS is 18 seconds

  • STS is limited in duration

  • Rehearsal is needed for transfer from STS to LST

• Research Method

  • True Experiment

• Applications

  • Multi-Store Model

Bransford and Johnson 1972 (The Laundry Study)

• Aim

  • To see how prior knowledge (schema) can influence comprehension and memory.

• Methods

  • Listening to a deliberately vague passage

  • The passage was about doing laundry

  • Three Conditions

    • Title before (participants were given the title of the passage, “Doing Laundry,” before they heard it)

    • No title

    • Title after

  • Two dependent variables

    • Comprehension (self-scored)

    • Memory (free recall test)

• Results

  • Comprehension (x/7)

    • Title Before 4.5

    • No Title 2.3

    • Title After 2.1

  • Memory (x/18)

    • Title before 5.8

    • No Title 2.8

    • Title after 2.6

• Conclusions

  • Schemas can improve comprehension and memory of new info b/c they enable us to relate now info to existing knowledge of the subject

• Research Method

  • True experiment

• Applications

  • Schema Theory

  • Cognitive Schema

Kahneman and Tversky 1974 (The Hospital Problem)

• Aim 

  • To see if people rely on intuitive thinking (system one) more than rational thinking (system two).

• Methods

  • 95 participants given a scenario of two hospitals

  • One large 45 babies born a day, one small 15 born a day

  • Participants reminded that gender ratio is 50/50

  • For 1 year, both hospital recorded how many days had a higher than 60% of one gender born

  • Participants asked “which hospital do you think recorded more such days?” Larger, smaller, or same?

• Results

  • 78% got it wrong and most (56%) answered “about the same” presumably b/c both hospitals are under the same statistic and are therefore equally representative of the general population.

  • Since birth rate is 50/50 they assumed the problem would be the same

• Conclusions

  • Participants used intuition rather than rational thinking

  • System one used when solving problems, even though it can lead to errors

• Research Method

  • True experiment

• Ethical Considerations

  • Informed Consent

• Applications

  • Thinking and decision making

  • Rational thinking (system two)

  • Intuitive thinking (system one)

Loftus and Palmer 1974 (The Car Crash Study)

• Aim

  • To see if leading questions can create false memories.

• Methods

  • Students watched clips of car crashed (5-30 seconds)

  • Given a series of questions to answer. The critical question was “How fast was the car going when it …?”

  • The IV was very used in the questions and DV their speed estimates

  • In a second experiment, only 3 conditions: “hit,” “smashed,” and no questions after one week the participants were asked if they saw a broken glass (there was no broken glass).

• Results

  • Stronger verbs lead to higher average speed estimates

    • Contacted - 32mph

    • Hit - 34mph

    • Bumped - 38mph

    • Collided - 39mph

    • Smashed - 40mph

  • 32% of the “smashed” condition said they saw broken glass, compared to 14% in the “hit” condition and 12% in the control condition.

• Conclusions

  • Higher intensity verbs act as false information and cause the misinformation effect by producing a false memory of broken glass. Thus memory is reconstructive in nature

• Research Methods

  • True experiment

• Ethical Considerations

  • Informed consent

• Applications

  • Reliability of cognitive processing

  • Reconstructive memory

Stone et al 1997 (The Basketball Player Study)

• Aim

  • To demonstrate the perceptual confirmation of racial stereotypes about black and white athletes

• Methods

  • The experiment was done in a lab environment in which 51 undergrad students and Princeton University listened to a 20 minute tape of a college basketball game. They were told to focus on a player named Mark Flick.

  •  Participants were given images of Flick with conditions in race and athleticism: 

    • black/white and athletic/unathletic.

  •  They were then given a questionnaire to rate Flick’s performance.

• Results

  • When Flick was perceived to be black, he was rated to have more physical ability, basketball performance and team play.

  • When Flick was perceived to be white, he was rated as having more basketball intelligence.

  • These results support the hypothesis that people hold racial stereotypes about athletes due to cognitive biases

• Conclusions

  • Confirmation bias, participants focused on details of game that were consistent with stereotypes

  • Effects of stereotypes, they can lead to confirmation 

• Research Method

  • True experiment

• Ethical Consideration

  • Informed Consent

• Applications

  • Biases in thinking and decision making

Buchanon and Lovallo 2001 (Cortisol and Memory)

• Aim

  • To explore the effects of the release of cortisol on memories of emotional information.

• Methods

  • Participants given 20mg of cortisol or placebo. Shown a range of images, either pleasant (food) or unpleasant (weapons). Then they ranked images on emotional arousal. Memory of images was tested again one week later. 

• Results

  • Both groups remember emotionally arousing images better. The Cortisol group remembered more emotional images full stop

• Conclusions

  • An increase of cortisol as a result of stress can improve memory consolidation of emotional information.

• Research Method

  • True experiment

• Ethical Consideration

  • Informed Consent

• Applications

  • The influence of emotion on cognition

Biological Approach

Passamonti et al 2012 (Serotonin and PFC)

• Aim

  • To determine if frontotemporal dementia or Alzheimer’s Disease caused a change in the neurobiological systems governing emotional responses.

• Methods

  • Participants consumed a placebo drink or a drink lacking tryptophan drink. They were then subject to images of facial expressions representing different emotions during an fMRI scan and blood flow during images was analyzed.

• Results

  • Participants who drank the tryptophan depleting drank had reduced function in PFC when perceiving angry faces

  • Reduced serotonin disrupted the neural network between the amygdala and PFC

• Conclusions

  • Reduced function in PFC when exposed to angry faces (a threat) could explain serotonin’s link with aggression. People can’t inhibit impulsive behavior because serotonin is affecting the part of the brain that stops impulse.

• Research Method

  • True experiment

• Ethical Consideration

  • Informed Consent

• Applications

  • Techniques to study brain

  • Neurotransmitters

  • Agonists

  • Neural networks

  • Inhibitory neurotransmitters

Feinstein et al 2011 (Case Study of SM)

• Aim

  • To see if the amygdala plays a role in the experience of fear.

• Methods

  • SM is a patient with bilateral amygdala damage due to a genetic condition

  • Tested her fear response with

    • Exotic pet store (snakes, spiders, etc)

    • Haunted House

    • Scary film clips

  • Questionnaire and interview used to gather data on life experiences relating to fear

• Results

  • SM has no fear response

  • Displayed other like happy and excitement

  • SM found herself in dangerous situations regularly like knifepoint and abusive relationships.

• Conclusions

  • Role of amygdala is to cause fear response and this is a healthy evolutionary adaptation

• Research Method

  • Case Study

• Ethical Consideration

  • Anonymity

• Applications

  • Localization

  • Evolution

  • Techniques MRI

Luby et al 2013 (Socioeconomic Stress and Brain Development)

• Aim

  • Investigate the effects of early childhood adversity, particularly neglect, on brain structure and function. (amygdala.)

• Methods

  • Participants included children aged 7 to 12 years who had experienced varying levels of early childhood neglect, as well as a control group of non-neglected children. Over 10 years

  • Structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was used to measure amygdala volume in all participants.

  • Functional MRI (fMRI) was employed to assess amygdala reactivity during emotional processing tasks, such as viewing facial expressions.

  • Children also underwent standardized assessments of emotional functioning and psychosocial adjustment.

  • Data analysis involved comparing brain structure and function between neglected and non-neglected children, as well as examining the relationship between these neurobiological differences and emotional outcomes.

• Results

  • Neglected children and lower socioeconomic status children exhibited significantly smaller hippocampus volumes compared to non-neglected children.

  • Supportive caregivers seemed to mediate this affect

• Conclusions

  • Neuroplasticity: SES influences neuroplasticity b/c it affects brain dev by increasing stress and negatively affecting parenting

  • Neural pruning: stress may be accelerating the neural pruning process, which reduces the volume of the hippocampus.

• Research Method

  • Correlational Study

  • Longitudinal Study

• Ethical Consideration

  • Anonymity

• Applications

  • Techniques to study brain (MRI)

  • Neuroplasticity

  • Neural pruning

Radke et al 2015 (Testosterone and the Brain)

• Aim

  • To see how an increase in testosterone may affect the amygdala when people are responding to a threat.

• Methods

  • 54 healthy females

  • Received injections of Test or placebo

  • Placed in fMRI and viewed images of happy or angry faces

  • Told to approach or avoid the face via a joystick

  • Task was designed to replicate what happens irl when we approach or avoid a threat

• Results

  • Test injection increased activity in the amygdala when participants approached the face but not avoiding it.

• Conclusions

  • Test biases the amygdala toward dealing with and reacting to social threats. Could explains why test linked with aggression

  • Test increases amygdala activity which causes aggressive reactions to social threat by increasing physiological arousal (key ingredients in aggression).

• Research Method

  • True experiment

• Ethical Consideration

  • Informed consent

• Applications

  • Hormones

  • Brain and behavior

  • Techniques to study the brain

Cornwell et al 2004 (Androstadienone and Facial Prefs)

• Aim

  • To see it androstadienone would affect what types of faces females found attractive in males.

• Methods

  • 112 participants 17-26 yo at Uni of St Andrews in Scotland

  • Shown a series of faces with varying levels of masculinity

  • Ranked faces based on attractiveness and desirability for ST and LT relationships

  • Smelled vials that contained five different chemicals, one of these being androstadienone.

• Results

  • 0.38 correlation between females who showed prefs for masculine faces for long term relationships and a pref for the smell of androstadienone

• Conclusions

  • Androstadienone is a possible human pheromone and might signal high qual genes

• Research Method

  • Correlational Study

• Ethical Consideration

  • Anonymity

• Applications

  • Pheromones and behavior

Meyer-Lindenberg et al 2008 (Warrior Gene and the Brain)

• Aim

  • To see how differences in the MAOA gene (high v low expression) affects brain activity when exposed to threat

• Methods

  • Two Groups

    • One expressing high expression of MAOA-H

    • One expressing low expression of MAOA-L

  • Brain activity measures during “emotional arousal” by showing angry or fearful faces.

• Results

  • When viewing angry and fearful faces, in an fMRI, MAOA-L group had increased amygdala activity and reduced PFC activity

  • The MAOA-L group had reduced cognitive control

• Conclusions

  • w/ increasing emotional arousal and inability to regulate emotion and impulse, MAOA-L group may be prone to impulse-reactive aggression. Could explain the link between MAOA-L gene and violent behavior.

• Research Method

  • Natural Experiment

• Ethical Consideration

  • Informed Consent

• Applications

  • Techniques to study brain (fMRI)

  • Genes and behavior (MAOA gene)

Baker et al 2007 (Twin Study on ASB(anti-social behavior))

• Aim

  • To examine to what extent ASB is genetically based

• Methods

  • Over 1K MZ and DZ twins and triplets (9-10 yo) from diverse backgrounds in SoCal were studied.

  • Many tests used to measure levels of ASB including self-report, teacher and caregiver questionnaires.

  • ASBs included levels of aggression, psychopathic traits, and disordered conduct

• Results

  • Results showed that heritability was around 50% meaning that differences in ASB (including aggression) in children is about 50% genetics and 50% other factors.

• Conclusions

  • The use of twins shows that ASB is a combination of genetics and the environment.

• Research Method

  • Correlational study

• Ethical Consideration

  • Informed Consent

• Applications

  • Genetic similarities 

  • Genes and behavior

  • Twin and kinship study

Feder et al 2014 (Ketamine and PTSD)

• Aim

  • To test the effectiveness of ket on reducing the symptoms of PTSD and depression

• Methods

  • 41 diagnosed PTSD from NY, USA

  • Double blind with repeated measures

  • Two conditions

    • Ket: antagonist of glutamate receptors, glutamate is an excitatory neurotransmitter)

    • Midazolam (anesthetic for anxiety)

  • Drugs given via IV

  • Participants received both two weeks apart

  • PTSD and depression symptoms measured

• Results

  • Ket was significantly more effective in reducing PTSD

• Conclusions

  • Ket may be useful treatment for PTSD

  • Antagonist effect of ket may prevent the glutamate in hyper-responsive areas of the brain like the amygdala

• Research Method

  • True Experiment

• Ethical Consideration

  • Informed Consent

• Applications

  • Neurotransmitters (glutamate)

  • Antagonists (ket)

SocioCultural

Park and Rothbart 1982 (Sorority Girls, Group Bias, and Homogeneity Effect)

• Aim

  • To see if naturally occurring social groups would demonstrate in-group bias and the out-group homogeneity effect.

• Methods

  • Participants from 3 similar sororities at University of Oregon (about 30 from each, 90 total)

  • Girls ranked their own sorority and the out-group sororities on ten characteristics via questionnaire

  • Girls ranked their own sorority and the other two on how much each group personified these characteristics (8 favorable, 2 unfavorable).

• Results

  • All groups the favorable characters were typical of the own rather than other

  • Two of the sororities ranked the unfavorable characteristics as more characteristic of the others.

• Conclusions

  • Belonging to ingroup leads to ingroup bias. Could lead to prejudice and discrimination

  • Stereotypes: belonging to an ingroup creates outgroup homogeneity, increasing likelihood of stereotype formation.

• Research Method

  • Natural Experiment

• Ethical Consideration

  • Informed Anonymity

• Applications

  • Stereotypes (formation)

  • In-Group Bias

  • Out-Group Homogeneity Effect

Barry 1957 (Parenting Practices Across Cultures)

• Aim

  • To see if there was a correlation between the economic systems of a culture and their parenting practices. 

• Methods

  • 46 cultures ranging from low to high food accumulation (hunter-gatherer or pastoral)

  • Studied child training practices from around 5 yo to adolescence

  • Focused on obedience, responsibility, self-reliance, achievement, and independence

• Results

  • High food cultures had more emphasis on responsibility and obedience training

  • Low food cultures had more emphasis on independence, achievement, and self-reliance.

• Conclusions

  • Enculturation: parents raise kids with cultural values to be successful in the economies they live in.

  • Enculturation: can happen through parents and it’s an important process to help individuals be successful in their cultures

• Research Method

  • True Experiment

• Ethical Consideration

  • Informed Consent

• Applications

  • Enculturation

  • Cultural Influences and origins of behavior

  • Cultural Norms

Berry 1967 (Cross-cultural comparison of conformity - Temne and Inuit)

• Aim

  • To compare conformity rates of people from two different types of cultures

• Methods

  • Compare the Tenme and Inuit peoples as well as a Scottish control group

  • Used a variation of the Asch Paradigm to measure conformity

  • Compared traditional and modern communities from each culture

• Results

  • Tenme ppl had higher rates of conformity than Inuit (and Scottish) 

  • Traditional communities had higher rates of conformity than modern communities across all cultures

• Conclusions

  • Tenme pl need more coop to survive (bc they are agricultural)

  • Inuit encourage more individualism as method of gathering food d/n require coop 

  • Enculturation processes are influenced by values a culture needs to succeed.

  • Culture can influence behavior (conformity)

  • Individualistic cultures may conform less that collectivist culture.

• Research Method

  • Natural Experiment

• Ethical Consideration

  • Informed Consent

• Applications

  • Enculturation

  • Cultural Influences on Behavior

  • Cultural Origins of Behaviors

  • Cultural Norms

Bandura 1961 (Bobo Doll Experiment)

• Aim

  • To see if observing aggressive behavior would affect aggressive behavior

• Methods

  • 72 children from Stanford University Nursery aged 2.5 to 5.5 yo

  • Three conditions

    • Aggressive behavior observed from adult model hitting kicking doll

    • Non aggressive behavior observed from adult playing with doll

    • Control, no model

  • Some watched same sex models, or different sex models.

  • Kids were put into a room and observed for 20 mins

• Results

  • Kids in aggressive condition had higher rates of aggressive behavior. 

  • Boys observing male model and girls observing female model were more likely to imitate behavior

• Conclusions

  • Observation learning: behavior can be learned by observing others.

  • Identifying with the model could increase the likelihood of observed behavior being imitated and learned.

• Research Method

  • True Experiment

• Ethical Consideration

  • Informed (parental) Consent

• Applications

  • Individual and the Group

  • Social Cognitive Theory

Lyons-Padilla 2017 (Acculturation Strategies and Muslim Immigrants)

• Aim

  • To investigate effects of acculturation gap on 1st and 2nd Muslim immigrants

• Methods

  • Researchers surveyed 260 1st and 2nd generation Muslim immigrants in the US on acculturation strategies, extremism, mental health, and significance loss (loss of self worth).

• Results

  • Positive Correlation with:

    • Marginalization and significance loss

    • Significance loss and adopting a more radical interpretation of Islam

    • Levels of significance loss and sympathy for a fundamentalist Islamic Group

  • Higher discrimination led to worse effects of marginalization on sense of significance loss.

• Conclusions

  • Acculturation strategies used by immigrants can affect the risk of becoming radicalized

  • Globalization can influence behavior through the different acculturation strategies migrants adopts

• Research Method

  • Correlational Study

• Ethical Consideration

  • Anonymity and anonymity consent (and debriefing)

• Applications

  • Acculturation

  • Acculturation Strategies

Stone et al 1997 (The Basketball Player Study)

• Aim

  • To demonstrate the perceptual confirmation of racial stereotypes about black and white athletes

• Methods

  • The experiment was done in a lab environment in which 51 undergrad students and Princeton University listened to a 20 minute tape of a college basketball game. They were told to focus on a player named Mark Flick.

  •  Participants were given images of Flick with conditions in race and athleticism: 

    • black/white and athletic/unathletic.

  •  They were then given a questionnaire to rate Flick’s performance.

• Results

  • When Flick was perceived to be black, he was rated to have more physical ability, basketball performance and team play.

  • When Flick was perceived to be white, he was rated as having more basketball intelligence.

  • These results support the hypothesis that people hold racial stereotypes about athletes due to cognitive biases

• Conclusions

  • Confirmation bias, participants focused on details of game that were consistent with stereotypes

  • Effects of stereotypes, they can lead to confirmation 

• Research Method

  • True experiment

• Ethical Consideration

  • Informed Consent

• Applications

  • Effects of Stereotypes

  • Stereotypes on cognition

Case Studies for Paper 2

Human Relationships

Johnston et al 2001 (Female Prefs for High Test)

• Aim

  • To see what types of faces females found more attractive

• Methods

  • 42 female participants from New Mexico State Uni

  • Participants manipulated faces until they found an “optimal target”

  • Females were at different points of their menstrual cycle.

• Results

  • When females were ovulating, they had a stronger preference for masculine facial features

• Conclusions

  • Masculine faces signify high testosterone and could be attractive because testosterone is correlated with a healthy immune system and\

• Research Methods

  • Natural Experiment

• Ethical Considerations

  • Informed Consent

• Applications

  • Formation of Personal Relationships

Changed faces, when women were ovulating they preferred masculine facial feature

Buss 1989 (Cross-Cultral Study of Attraction)

• Aim

  • To investigate cross cultural similarities and differences in mate preference.

• Methods

  • Over 10K ppl from 37 diff cultures (33 countries)

  • Complete a range of questionnaires about what they wanted in a romantic partner.

• Results

  • Men and women across cultures had similarities in their mate pregs

  • Traits that can be explained evolutionarily include age (males like younger, females like older), domestic skills (males liked more), and social status (females liked more).

  • There were diffs across culture dimensions, including collectivist females having a preference for ambition and social status and individualistic males having a tendency to place lower value on domestic skills.

• Conclusions

  • The cross-cultural similarities in gender prefs provides support for evolutionary explanation of attraction, whereas the differences between individualistic and collectivist participants suggests culture is also an important factor.

• Research Methods

  • Correlational study

• Ethical Considerations

  • anonymity

• Applications

  • Formation of Personal Relationships

Levine et al. 1995 (Importance of Love in Marriage)

• Aim

  • To compare relative important of love in a marriage across different cultures

• Methods

  • Compared college students from 11 diff cultures

  • Researchers gathered data using questionnaires.

  • “If love disappears, it is best for a clean break.”

• Results

  • Individualistic cultures placed more emphasis on love compared to collectivist cultures. 

  • There were higher divorce rates in countries where participants agreed a couple should make a clean break if they’re not in love.

  • Philippines and Pakistan were most likely to disagree that an absence of love was reason to divorce

• Conclusions

  • Cultural Values can influence the importance of love in forming a relationship (marriage and divorce).

• Research Methods

  • Correlational study

  • Anonymity 

• Ethical Considerations

  • Informed Consent

• Applications

  • Formation of Personal Relationships

  • Why relationships may change or end

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Graham and Conoley 2006 (Marital Attribution and Divorce)

• Aim

  • To understand the role of attributions in relationships

• Methods

  • 58 mostly white middle class couples from Texas

  • Stress from past year measured

  • 10 hypothetical questions given and participants explained how they would “explain” this behavior if it was done by their partner (attribution theory)

  • Measure of marital quality was also measured using standard questionnaires

• Results

  • Attribution moderated the relationship between stressful events and marital satisfaction.

  • Stressful events had less of an impact if couples would make positive attributions of their partner’s behavior. 

• Conclusions

  • Attribution can protect a couple’s marriage from the potential damage of stressful events.

• Research Methods

  • Correlational Study

• Ethical Considerations

  • Anonymity

• Applications

  • Why relationships may change or end