Political Theory Lecture Review
Problem of Change and Critiques of Conservatism
Conservatism is not monolithic, and contemporary liberalism/progressivism also differs from their classical counterparts. Classical conservatism, particularly as articulated by Burke, faces several criticisms:
Prioritization of the Dead: Thomas Paine argued that conservatism prioritizes “the authority of the dead over the rights and freedoms of the living.”
Unproven Continuity: The assumption that traditions and customs continue due to “collected reason of the ages” is challenged; continuity could stem from other, less rational, factors.
Anti-Rational and Anti-Modern: Conservatism’s core assumptions are seen as anti-rational and anti-modern, advocating an “uncritical, unreasoned, and unquestioning acceptance of the status quo.”
Despotism of Custom: J.S. Mill criticized what he termed the “despotism of custom,” highlighting the stifling effect of unexamined tradition.
Contemporary Application: These critiques are relevant today, for example, in how the U.S. Constitution is interpreted.
“Reclaiming the Past” (Radical Traditionalism)
This approach is more radical than classical conservatism, focusing not on preserving custom but on reacting to undesirable change and a desire for restoration.
Core Idea: Aims to return to a ‘golden age’ of the past.
View of Progress: Assumes that progress and change have worsened society, leading to social, moral, and political decay.
Goal: To undo changes that have led to this decay by striving for a return to a perceived better past.
Underlying Emotion: Stemming from dissatisfaction with present circumstances and a distrust of the future.
Critiques of this Framework:
Biased Misunderstandings: Often based on biased or incomplete understandings of “the way things used to be.”
Naïve View of Past: Relies on a mythical view of the past, ignoring advancements taken for granted today that did not exist during the supposed ‘Golden era’.
Context Dependency: Not all institutions or ideas are timeless; many are context-dependent and evolve with societal changes.
Change for the Purpose of Conserving (Enlightened Traditionalism)
This is a more progressive or moderate conservative stance, recognizing that strategic change is essential for survival.
Adaptation for Survival: Societies must adapt and change to endure.
Methodology: Prefers moderate and incremental reforms over revolutionary upheaval.
“Enlightened Traditionalism”:
Always opposing change ultimately becomes self-defeating.
Stubborn resistance to reform can paradoxically lead to revolution.
Acknowledges that some forms of change are inevitable, being neither inherently good nor bad.
Challenges to ‘Enlightened Traditionalism’:
Difficulty in Distinction: It is very difficult to distinguish between ‘natural’ and ‘un-natural’ changes.
Potential for Further Calls: Gradual reform may not always promote stability and contentment; it can sometimes embolden calls for more radical change.
Concept of Utopia
Utopia refers to idealized, imaginary societies with distinct characteristics.
Definition: Imagined, hypothetical, fictional worlds that represent ideal societies.
Nature: By definition, utopias represent impossible, unrealistic beliefs linked to unachievably high goals.
Cultural Significance: Connections to utopias, ideal ‘golden ages’, and lost paradises are found in many cultures and religions worldwide.
Enlightenment Era: The concept became increasingly common during the Enlightenment era, fueled by a growing belief in rationality, humanity, progress, development, and perfectibility of human beings.
Common Characteristics:
Radical Rejection: Necessitates a radical rejection of the existing status quo.
Human Potential: Believes in the potential for extensive human development and improvement.
Public/Private Spheres: Often seeks to bridge (or even eliminate boundaries between) the public and private spheres of life.
Utopias as Political Theories
As political theories, utopias propose a vision of an ideal world.
Ideal World: Focus on “what should be” – a world free of imperfections.
Unbound by Reality: Not bound or confined by the constraints of humanity, society, or the world as it currently exists.
Individualized Visions: Utopian thinkers’ visions are often highly individualized, remaining in the mind of the beholder.
Common Themes in Utopias:
Freedom from Want: Societies where all needs are met, and scarcity is overcome.
Social Harmony: Dedicated to achieving social harmony, free from social or political conflict.
Individual Emancipation: Strive for the full emancipation of the individual.
Critiques of Utopian Theory
Utopian theory faces significant philosophical and practical criticisms.
Realism and Achievability: Criticized as not realistic or achievable, thus considered a waste of time and intellectual effort.
Flawed Human Nature Assumption: The assumption that human nature is perfectible is seen as flawed or false.
Inviolable Concepts: Argues that fundamental concepts like private property and natural rights cannot be eliminated.
Naïveté and Unintended Consequences: Deemed too naïve, believing that attempts to implement utopian visions will inevitably lead to unintended consequences and societal flaws.
Violence and Instability: The belief in an ideal world that can be achieved is predicted to lead to violence, instability, and violations of the (presumed natural) rights of those who disagree with the vision.
Intolerance and Repression: Denies the legitimacy of alternative paths to progress or development, which inevitably leads to intolerance, repression, and potentially violence.
Conformity: Requires conformity to one person’s vision of an ideal world, thereby eliminating diversity of thought.
Socialism and its Relation to Utopianism
Socialism shares some goals with utopianism but differs in its perceived attainability and understanding of human nature.
Shared Goal: Seeks to rectify existing societal problems and achieve an ideal society.
Distinction from Utopia: Supporters of socialism believe it is attainable, unlike utopian ideals.
Rejection of Classical Liberalism: Rejects the Lockean and classical liberal view of humans as autonomous beings.
View of Human Nature: Argues that by nature, humans are sociable and cooperative.
Critique of Individualism and Liberalism: Contends that the flaws of individualism and liberalism create and exacerbate societal problems.
Root Causes of Problems: Identifies greed, corruption, and capitalism as the core issues leading to economic inequality, political inequality, and poverty.
Role of Private Property: Believes that the nature of private property corrupts society.
Solution: Eliminating problems deriving from private property is seen as the path to forming an ideal society.
Classical Liberalism
Classical liberalism emerged as a transformative political philosophy.
Historical Context:
Initially criticized the absolutism of the Medieval period.
Its criticisms contributed to the decline of the feudal system.
Later incorporated ideas of free market capitalism.
Instrumental in changing political systems and societies from the
1600sto the1800s.
Core Principle: Predicated on individual freedom.
Role of Government: Advocates for less government intervention in the lives of citizens and in the economy.
Individual Agency: Individuals are empowered to pursue their own self-interests.
Evolution of Terminology: The term “liberal” varies significantly in meaning today compared to its meaning in classical liberalism.
Characteristics of Classical Liberalism
Classical liberalism is defined by several key characteristics:
Individualism: Committed to individualism, expressed either in terms of natural rights or utilitarianism.
Negative Understanding of Freedom:
Freedom is defined as being left alone by the government.
Freedom is the absence of intervention.
Freedom is the absence of commitment or duty to others.
The State as a Necessary Evil:
The government is considered a necessary evil.
Its primary purpose is to maintain order and peace in society.
Economic Philosophy: Tends to value free market capitalism, open markets, and free trade.
Advocates for minimal government intervention or regulation of the economy.
Strongly connected to the idea of the right to private property.
The Problem of Human Nature
Today's Objectives
I. Problem of Human Nature
II. Social Contract Theory
III. Perspectives on State of Nature
The Problem of Human Nature
Philosophical discussions about human nature gained prominence with diminishing religious authority.
Shift from Authority: The decline of authoritative religious leaders opened opportunities for new philosophical discussions regarding human nature.
Lack of Consensus: There is no agreed-upon authority to definitively resolve these disputes.
Impact on Political Theory: Different and contested interpretations of human nature significantly impact how political thinkers view and address other problems in political theory, such as justice, freedom, power, and equality.
The Question of Human Nature
Understanding human nature is central to political theory.
Definition: “Human nature refers to the essential and immutable character of all human beings. It highlights what is innate and ‘natural’ about human life, as opposed to what human beings have gained from education or through social experience.” (Heywood & Chin, p. 43)
Ethical Basis: A key question is whether a theory of human nature can provide a neutral basis for determining the nature of political morality.
Key Contrasts: When considering human nature, several fundamental contrasts are important:
Nature vs. Nurture
Intellect vs. Instinct
Competition vs. Cooperation
Individualism vs. Collectivism
The Social Contract Tradition
The social contract tradition posits that society and government are products of an agreement among individuals.
Government as Contract: Society and government are viewed as a contract.
Creation of Government: People create governments to rule over societies.
Consent: Based on the consent of the governed, for the purpose of establishing order and protection.
The State of Nature: A hypothetical concept exploring what life would be like in our natural state, without government.
Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679)
Authored Leviathan in
1651.Influenced by the English Civil war (
1642–1651).Believed in materialism and anarchy, describing human life in a state of nature as “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.”
Hobbes on State of Nature & Social Contract
State of Nature: People are in constant conflict due to limited resources, living in “continual fear, and danger of violent death; and the life of man [is] solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.”
Consent to Govern: People consent to be governed to establish order and peace in society, preventing a state of “war of every man against every man.”
Social Contract: Order is achieved via a social contract where individuals appoint a sovereign, or “leviathan,” who prevents mutual destruction.
Preferred Government: Hobbes advocated for a strong monarch with absolute power.
Sovereign's Authority: The sovereign possesses a monopoly on the legitimate use of force/violence over the people and is justified in their actions if they can maintain power.
Locke on State of Nature & Social Contract
John Locke (1632–1704)
Wrote Second Treatise in the
1680s.Viewed America as the closest existing example of a ‘state of nature’ at the time.
Locke's Social Contract Theory:
Written Agreement: The social contract is a written agreement where individuals agree to give up certain rights to the government.
Mutual Obligation: Both citizens and the government are bound to obey the social contract.
Protection of Natural Rights: The contract specifies government powers to ensure the protection of individuals’ natural rights, which include “life, liberty, and property.”
Individual Responsibility: Each person is primarily responsible for themselves.
Property through Labor: The right to own property is created through one’s labor.
Limits on Government: The social contract places explicit limits on what the government can and cannot do; it cannot violate natural rights.
Right to Rebel: If the government violates these natural rights, citizens have a legitimate right to rebel.
Rousseau on State of Nature & Social Contract
Swiss/French Theorist (1712–1778)
State of Nature: Described as pre-political and pre-social, marked by peace, innocence, and absence of corruption.
Origin of Problems: Problems in society are introduced by the creation of social institutions and obligations.
Root of Inequality: Inequalities among men are not naturally caused but arise from societal structures.
Purpose of Social Contract: To promote the ‘general will’ and the common good of the community.
Particular Will vs. General Will: The pursuit of ‘particular will’ (individual self-interest) leads to political, social, and economic inequality.
Sovereignty: Argued that individuals are sovereign and this sovereignty is pre-political; it cannot be given up to representatives or government.
Ideal Governance: Advocated for direct democracy and robust political engagement.
The Social Contract: Summary
The social contract tradition critically examines human nature, the state, and civil society, emphasizing the artificiality of political structures.
Hobbes' Contribution: Raised the fundamental question of governance and the necessity of authority.
Locke's Contribution: Highlighted the importance of the individual and natural rights.
Rousseau's Contribution: Focused on human potential for self-transformation and the corrupting influence of society, advocating for the 'general will'.
Nature vs. Nurture
The debate over human nature centers on whether its core is fixed or flexible.
Fixed Core: Is the core of human nature fixed and unchangeable?
Flexible Core: Is the core of human nature flexible and adaptable?
Nature: Survival of the Fittest
This perspective argues that human nature is innately determined and largely unalterable.
Biological Determinism: Human nature is shaped by biological factors and is considered unchangeable.
Scientific Roots: Theories rooted in natural sciences, such as Social Darwinism and the principle of Survival of the Fittest.
Trait-Based Success: Suggests that over time, some individuals develop desirable (or undesirable) traits that allow them to thrive to a greater (or lesser) extent than others.
Individuals utilize their natural skills, talents, and traits to pursue life, liberty, property, and happiness.
Success in these pursuits varies based on these differing innate traits.
Hierarchical Implications: In its most extreme forms, these theories can lead to ideas of social, political, and economic hierarchies, justifying differences between races/ethnicities or genders/sexes.
Associated Thinkers: Hobbes and Locke are often associated with this perspective.
Nurture: Plasticity of Human Nature
This perspective emphasizes the flexible and socially constructed aspects of human nature.
Social Creatures: Humanity is not fixed; humans are social creatures who learn and adapt based on interactions with others.
Sociological Approach: Adopts a sociological understanding of human nature, highlighting its flexibility.
Environmental Conditioning: Posits that social environments condition human behavior.
Role of Political Institutions: Therefore, political institutions should aim to level the playing field and ensure that not only the strongest survive.
Government Intervention: Advocates for more government intervention, regulation, and social welfare programs.
Associated Thinkers: Rousseau and Marx are key figures associated with this perspective.