Final Prep v2
Digestive System
Alimentary tract/ GI tract
Mouth and Oral Cavity
Beginning: Oral Cavity/Mouth.
Hard and Soft Palates: anterior hard and soft posterior
Uvula from soft Palate: Flicks up to prevent non-air from entering nasopharynx
Lips & Cheeks: Anterior wall and lateral wall
Tongue: Skeletal muscle organ consisting of gustary bulbs allowing for taste; assists in mechanical digestion of nutrients
Chewing/mastication muscles: Lateral Masseter and Temporalis muscles which open and close mouth. Medial and lateral pterygoid muscles sideways chewing (cow!)
Pharynx: nasopharynx respiratory only area; oropharynx: area of chewing and respiratory actions (uvula to hyoid bone); laryngopharynx (posterior to larynx/voice box) also digestive.
Epiglottis: closes off inferior larynogopharynx preventing nutrient entrance into voicebox.
Esophagus: Flattened muscular tube which expands from laryngopharynx to stomach. Begins skeletal muscle then become smooth muscle as it goes down more.
Clump of food entering = BOLUS
Peristalsis: rhythmic contraction of muscle to propel food forward/
Sphincters: Cardiac prevents backflow into esophagus; big role in heartburn!
Stomach: Left side of body; receives contents from esophagus. Contains hydrochloric acid and enzyme pepsin, breaking down bolus into CHYME. Low ph also present.
Anatomy fix: Max superior: Fundus; semi superior: cardiac; main portion: body; and terminal: pyloric region
Rugae: sacs which increase surface of the stomach, allowing expansion to accommodate food.
Sphincters: Esophageal: prevents backflow of acid into esophagus; Pyloric sphincter: controls flow into small intestine
Small intestine: 5m (17 ft), 3-4 cm (1.5in) in diameter. Functions in absorption.
Duodenum: C-shaped structure attached to pyloric region. 25cm (10in long). Receives fluids from Pancreas and gall bladder.
Jejunum: 2m (6.5ft) in length: Second part of small intestine, connecting at duodenojejunal flexure.
Ileum: 3m (10ft): Terminal region of small intestine, ending at ileocecal valve, which is the sphincter.
Large Intestine: 7cm (3in) in diameter and 1.4m (4.5ft) in length. Absorption of water, some vitamins, solutes and elimination.
Cecum: First part of large intestine; pouch-like area which articulates with ileocecal valve
Appendix: expands inferiorly from large intestine, playing a role in healthy bacteria.
Ascending colon: right side of body, connects from cecum; ascends upwards.
Transverse colon: transverse from right colic flexure (which connects ascending and transverse) to left colic flexure (which connects descending and transverse)
Descending colon: descends inferiorly on left side of body, joining with sigmoid colon at terminal region.
Sigmoid Colon: S-shaped segment of the large intestine on left inguinal region
Rectum: straight section of colon in pelvic cavity; hemorrhoidal veins.
Fecal material stored in sigmoid and rectum; eliminated by defecation through MASS PERISTALSIS.
Salivary Glands: stored in head; secrete saliva (mucus and salivary amylase (starch killer). Secretes about 1.5 L a day.
Parotid Glands: anterior to ears and biggest, secretes saliva through parotid duct.
Submandibular glands: medial to mandible.
Sublingual glands: inferior to tongue.
Mumps: viral infection of parotid glands.
Liver: right side of body; divided into four lobes.
Anterior: Larger Right love and smaller left lobe. Seperated by a FALCIFORM LIGAMENT.
Inferior: Quadrate lobe: small, rectangular lobe adjacent o gallbladder; caudate lobe: posterior ege of liver near inferior vena cava.
Gallbladder: Inferior to liver, site of bile production.
Left & right hepatics ducts → Common hepatic duct → Cystic duct (branch into gallbladder) —> common bile duct —> duodenum.
Pancreas: Inferior to stomach, left side of body. Tail, near spleen; elongated BODY; rounded HEAD next to duodenum. enzymes and buffers pass from pancreases tissue into PANCREATIC DUCT.
Urinary System
Kidney: Bean-shaped structure which is retroperitoneal.
Renal Fascia: Outer layer of dense irregular connective tissue which connects kidneys to abdominal wall.
Adipose capsule: adipose connective tissue layer which adds protection.
Renal capsule: thin fibrous membrane which covers outer surface of Kidney itself.
Renal smooth outer cortex and inner complex medulla.
Renal Artery → Segmental Arteries →
Ureters: Long, thin tubes which transport urine to urinary bladder.
Inner mucosa, middle muscularis and outer advential layer.
Urinary Bladder: muscular sac on floor of pelvic cavity; highly distensible expanding to 700-800ml during maximal capacity.
Contraction forces urine out, adevntia maintains it’s place.
Urethra: Difference in males and females.
Females: 3-4cm long.
Males: 20 cm long;
Common features: Internal involuntary smooth muscle sphincter and external voluntary skeletal urethral sphincter.
Urinalysis: analysis of physical, chemical and microscopic characteristics of urine and it’s volume.
Urine Volume dependent on water content of the body; influenced by water intake, water loss and hormones.
Specific Gravity: weight of volume of urine divided by weight of same volume of distilled water.
Urine weight > distilled water due to solutes.
Urine often contains: 95% water and 5% solutes. Electrolytes
Metabolic Waste: UREA (breakdown of amino acids), creatinine (breakdown of creatine phosphate), URIC Acid (breakdown of nucleic acids), and metabolic end products of hormones and other substances.
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Normal Characteristics of urine
Volume: 1 to 2 liters per 24 hours; considerable variation in normal volume.
Color: Yellow or amber color; darker with concentration.
Odor: aromatic when fresh; ammonia-like when time allows breakdown of urea to ammonia.
pH: 4.6-8.0. Average 6.0;
Specific Gravity: normal range 1.001-1.035.
Abnormal characteristics of Urine
Glucosuria (glucose in urine): typically, diabetes.
Hematuria (RBC in urine): inflammation of urinary system organs, kidney stones, disease, trauma etc.
Albuminuria (excess albumin): increased filtration membrane permeability due to heavy exercise, high blood pressure, kidney trauma or disease.
Ketonuria:
Reproductive System
Male Reproductive System
Scrotum: pouch of loose skin suspended from the root of the penis outside of the abdominopelvic cavity.
Divided into two portions which house each teste; a internal scrotal septum splits the compartments.
DARTOS (scrotum) & CREMASTER (internal oblique) muscles: when contracted raise scrotum closer to body for temperature regulation.
Testes/male gonads: Oval-shaped glands which produce and release testosterone and sperm.
Tunica Albuginea: Outer Dense white fibrous connective tissue
Septa: compartments which subdivide into lobules, formed from internal projection of tunica albuginea into testes.
Seminiferous Tubules from Lobules, carry sperm into a network of tubules called Rete Testis.
Efferent ducts connect Rete Testis to the Epididymis, first male duct system
Epididymis: squid paw over testes; acts as a site of sperm maturation and storage. Peristaltic contractions of smooth muscle move sperm into DUCTUS (VAS) DEFERENS.
Spermatic Cord: Contains artery, vein, lymph vessel, nerve, cremaster muscle and a ductus deferens. Transports sperm from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct during ejaculation.
Ductus deferens: A muscular tube that conveys sperm from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct.
Ampulla: An enlargement of the ductus deferens that serves as a reservoir for sperm, facilitating its entry into the ejaculatory duct during ejaculation.
Ejaculatory duct: Ampulla merges with the seminal vesicle duct to form the ejaculatory duct, which then transports semen into the prostatic urethra.
The prostatic urethra than transports to the penis, where semen is expelled during ejaculation.
Accessory glands: These include the seminal vesicles and the prostate gland, both of which contribute fluids to semen, providing nourishment and facilitating sperm motility.
Seminal vesicles: saclike glands posterior to bladder, on either side. W
Alkaline fluid encompassing 60% of semen volume, neutralizing acidic male urethra. Also contains fructose for sperm, and prostaglandins to stimulate sperm motility and female tract.
Prostate Gland: Located below the bladder, it produces a fluid that constitutes approximately 30% of semen volume, which activates sperm and enhances their motility. This gland secretes a milky, alkaline fluid that neutralizes urinary acids.
Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is a common condition in older men, characterized by the enlargement of the prostate gland, which can lead to urinary difficulties and increased frequency of urination.
Bulbourethral glands: Located on either side of membranous urethra, these pea-sized glands secrete an alkaline mucus-mixed substance which lubricates and bases environments.
Penis: Cylindrical shaft containing distal portion of urethra.
Body of Penis: The main shaft of the penis, comprised of erectile tissue that becomes engorged with blood to facilitate erection.
Two dorsolateral Corpora Cavernosa Penis: The two dorsolateral corpora cavernosa are cylindrical structures that run along the length of the penis, playing a crucial role in achieving and maintaining an erection by filling with blood during sexual arousal.
Midventral Corpus spongiosum Penis: The midventral corpus spongiosum penis surrounds the urethra and expands to form the glans penis, ensuring that the urethra remains open during erection and ejaculation.
Fibrous connective tissue, fascia, and skin surround all cylinders.
GLANS PENIS: Distal, expanded portion of corpus spongiosum that is covered in PREPUCE (foreskin).
Female Reproductive System
Ovaries and Uterine Tubes
Ovaries: oval-shaped gonads which produce oocytes and hormones such as estrogen and progesterone, playing a crucial role in the menstrual cycle and reproductive processes.
Uterine Tubes: Also known as fallopian tubes, these structures transport the oocyte from the ovary to the uterus, providing a site for fertilization.
Infundibulum: funnel-shaped opening at the end of the uterine tube that captures the oocyte released from the ovary and directs it into the tube for fertilization.
Ampulla: transverse portion of the uterine tube where fertilization typically occurs, serving as the widest section that facilitates the meeting of sperm and oocyte.
Isthmus: narrow segment of the uterine tube that connects the ampulla to the uterus, playing a crucial role in transporting the fertilized egg towards the uterine cavity.
Uterine part: the section of the uterine tube that extends into the uterus, allowing for the implantation of the fertilized egg and supporting the early stages of pregnancy.
Uterus: pear-shaped hollow muscular cavity designed to house and nourish a developing fetus, consisting of three main layers: the endometrium, myometrium, and perimetrium.
Fundus: Superior portion of the uterus.
Body: main part
Cervix: The lower part of the uterus that opens into the vagina, serving as a passageway for menstrual blood and a gateway for sperm to enter, playing a crucial role in childbirth.
Internal and external os: The internal os is the opening of the cervix that connects to the uterus, while the external os is the opening that leads into the vagina, both being essential for reproductive health and the management of menstrual flow.
mucus clog: Mucus fills the cervical canal, forming a barrier that protects the uterus from infection during certain phases of the menstrual cycle.
Endometrium: thin, inner, vascular layer.
Myometrium: muscular layer which contracts to expel fetus or shed uterine lining
Perimetrium: This is the outermost layer of the uterus, providing structural support and protection.
Vagina: passageway for couta, childbirth and menstrual flow.
External Genitalia:
Vulva: the collective term for the external female genitalia, including the labia, clitoris, and opening of the vagina.
Mons pubis: anterior adipose tissue beneath skin covering pubic symphysis.
Labia Majora: Two longitudinal adipose tissue folds covered with skin and hair, posterior to the mons pubis, which serve to protect the underlying structures of the vulva.
Labia Minora: Smaller paired longitudinal folds of skin w/o hair that lie with the Labia majora.
Clitoris: Erectile tissue posterior to mons pubis and anterior to external urethral orifice.
Prepuce: Anterior extension of labia minora that forms a fold of skin over the clitoris.
Vestibule: Area medial to paired labia minora, containing external urethral orifice, vaginal orifice, and hymen (if present) and openings of glands which secrete mucus.
Mammary Glands
Mammary glands: specialized derivates of skin, categorized as modified sweat glands, which secrete milk in females.
Areola: pigmented skin surrounding the nipple, which contains small glands that help lubricate the area during breastfeeding.
Nipple: The protruding structure through which milk is delivered to the infant, featuring multiple openings for milk ducts that expand during lactation.
Lactiferous duct openings.
Alveoli: milk-producing glands clustered into mammary ducts called lobules, which make up a lobe, which drain into lactiferous sinuses to form lactiferous ducts.