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Operant Learning

Operant Learning

Animal Intelligence and the Birth of Behaviorism

  • Edward Thorndike: Graduate student mentored by William James, known for "Functionalism".

  • Aim: Study ordinary animal intelligence, in contrast to extraordinary cases like "Clever Hans".

  • Key Point: Thorndike published his dissertation in 1898; Pavlov's work was published in English in 1927, leading to a lack of awareness between them during their early careers.

Thorndike’s Law of Effect

  • Definition: Organisms will repeat behaviors that lead to a “satisfying state of affairs” and resist behaviors that lead to an “annoying state of affairs”.

  • Key Insight: Behavior occurs as a function of its consequences, termed The Law of Effect.

  • Four Key Elements of The Law of Effect:

    • Context: The setting in which the behavior occurs.

    • Behavior: The specific action taken by the organism.

    • Change in Environment: The alteration in the environment following the behavior.

    • Change in Behavior: The change in behavior as a result of this consequence.

  • Thorndike discovered that behavior systematically strengthens or weakens due to its consequences.

  • Experiment: Thorndike’s “Puzzle Box” illustrated these principles.

B.F. Skinner

  • Beliefs: Considered free will an illusion; human action is dependent on consequences of prior actions.

  • Defined: The Principle of Reinforcement articulates how consequences affect behavior.

  • Operant Learning: Described as behavior "operating on the environment".

  • Also referred to as Instrumental Learning because behavior is instrumental in producing resulting events.

  • Other Terms:

    • Response Learning

    • R-S Learning

    • Reward Learning (with a clarification that people are rewarded, while behavior is reinforced).

The Skinner Box

  • Developed as a research tool to study Operant Learning in a controlled environment.

  • Components:

    • Operant Conditioning Chamber (Skinner Box): Used to study behaviors in response to stimuli.

    • Cumulative Recorder: Not originally used by Pavlov, but essential in Skinner's research.

  • Types of Operant Learning Studied:

    • Positive Reinforcement

    • Negative Reinforcement

    • Positive Punishment

    • Negative Punishment

The Contingency Square

  • Strength of Behavior

    • Increases (Strengthened) under:

    • Positive Reinforcement (Stimulus is Presented)

    • Negative Reinforcement (Stimulus is Removed)

    • Decreases (Weakened) under:

    • Positive Punishment (Stimulus is Presented)

    • Negative Punishment (Stimulus is Removed)

  • Summary of Operant Conditioning:

    • Positive Reinforcement: Giving something rewarding; increases behavior.

    • Negative Reinforcement: Removing something negative; increases behavior.

    • Positive Punishment: Adding something unpleasant; decreases behavior.

    • Negative Punishment: Removing something pleasant; decreases behavior.

Examples of Operant Conditioning

  • Positive Reinforcement: Giving a reward for good behavior (e.g., treats).

  • Negative Reinforcement: Lifting a curfew for good behavior.

  • Positive Punishment: Inflicting a spanking for poor behavior.

  • Negative Punishment: Taking away a favorite toy for poor behavior.

  • Distinction between Operant and Classical Conditioning:

    • Nature of response:

    • Classical: Involuntary (reflexive).

    • Operant: Voluntary (but can also be involuntary).

    • Timing of Stimulus:

    • Classical: Precedes response.

    • Operant: Follows desired response.

    • Role of learner:

    • Classical: Passive.

    • Operant: Active.

Forms of Negative Reinforcement

  • Positive Reinforcement: Increases behavior by adding a reward after successful behavior (e.g., treat for sitting).

  • Positive Punishment: Decreases behavior by presenting aversive stimuli (e.g., spanking for cursing).

  • Negative Reinforcement: Decreases behavior by removing pleasant stimuli (e.g., sending child to room for cursing).

  • Escape: Removes noxious stimuli following correct behavior (e.g., turning off an alarm).

  • Active Avoidance: Engaging in behaviors to avoid negative outcomes (e.g., studying to avoid poor grades).

Operant Learning and Reinforcement

  • Definition: Operant (or Instrumental) Learning occurs when consequences strengthen behavior (reinforcers) or weaken behavior (punishers).

  • Three Characteristics of Reinforcement:

    • A behavior must have a consequence (SR or SP; or S+ / S- for clarity).

    • The behavior must strengthen after the consequence.

    • The increase in strength must arise from the consequence.

Measuring Strengthening of Behavior

  • Operant Learning measured as the Frequency or Probability of a behavior.

  • Reinforcement effects beyond mere frequency:

    • Persistence of behavior despite cessation of reinforcement.

    • Resistance to adverse consequences.

    • Increased effort required to obtain reinforcer.

    • Ability to engage in competing reinforced behaviors.

Four Kinds of Reinforcers

  • Primary or Unconditioned Reinforcers: Reinforcers that fulfill biological needs without prior conditioning (e.g., food).

  • Secondary or Conditioned Reinforcers: Reinforcers that derive power from association with primary reinforcers (e.g., money).

  • Natural or Automatic Reinforcers: Reinforcing events that follow behavior naturally (e.g., the satisfaction from exercise).

  • Contrived Reinforcers: Reinforcers arranged to modify behavior (e.g., rewards for tasks).

Variables Affecting Operant Learning

  • Contingency: Correlation between behavior and consequence (stronger impact with reliable reinforcement).

  • Contiguity: Delay between behavior and reinforcing consequence (shorter intervals generally yield faster learning).

  • Reinforcer Characteristics:

    • Size of the reinforcer: More significant rewards increase motivation.

    • Quality of the reinforcer: Fresh vs. stale rewards influence desire.

  • Characteristics of Behavior and Motivating Operations:

    • Behavior's characteristics can affect reinforcement efficiency.

    • Motivating Operations influence the effectiveness of reinforcers.

    • Establishing Operation: Increases reinforcer effectiveness.

    • Abolishing Operation: Decreases reinforcer effectiveness.

Other Miscellaneous Variables

  • Previous learning experiences impact the effectiveness of current behavioral reinforcers or punishers.

  • Competing Contingencies: Various reinforcement contingencies can exist simultaneously, giving individuals multiple choices.

Next Time…

  • Theoretical and Neurobiological Explanations of Operant Learning.