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Lecture Notes: Colonial America — Mercantilism, Trade, and the French & Indian Wars

New England Economy

  • Overview: Colonial New England economy largely based on small family farms fed by a short growing season; farms not big plantations. Trade within local/community networks complements farming.
  • Agriculture:
    • Predominantly family-based small farms rather than large plantations.
    • Limited growing season; primary goal is subsistence and local provisioning rather than large-scale export crops.
  • Fishing industry:
    • A major component: cod fishing off the Atlantic coast.
    • Fishing complemented by trade, especially with Britain.
  • Trade with Britain:
    • New England exported dried fish to Britain.
    • Timber exports grew to become a major commodity by the mid-18th century; timber becomes one of the leading exports in the Northeast.
    • Dense forests in New England supply timber for imperial use; by the mid-18th century it is among the top exports (one of the leading exports alongside wheat in some regions).
  • Shipbuilding:
    • New England built a substantial share of Britain’s ships in colonial America; roughly 30\% of Britain’s merchant/other ships constructed there.
    • Shipbuilding supported both the Royal Navy and mercantile trade.
  • Labor and social aspects:
    • Slavery is present but not as dominant as in the Southern colonies; enslaved people are part of a broader Atlantic trade network.
    • Slaves’ labor and enslaved people are involved in labor patterns in the Atlantic world, including some involvement in rum and other goods.
  • Rum and molasses:
    • Rum production is a notable industry in New England.
    • Rum is tied to molasses/sugar (imported from the West Indies) and the enslaved labor system; molasses is a key input for rum.
    • New England’s rum industry will face imperial controls later (see Mercantilism legislation).
  • Economic connectivity and imperial trade:
    • Britain’s empire features a mercantilist system: raw goods flow to Britain; Britain manufactures goods; colonies buy those manufactured goods.
    • The imperial economy incentivizes exporting raw materials to Britain and importing manufactured goods back, shaping colonial trade patterns.
  • Geographic and economic context:
    • The Ohio River Valley and western trade routes become important later in competing claims (context for broader imperial competition).

Middle Colonies

  • Geographical and cultural distinctiveness:
    • Includes New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware.
    • Jophile start: originally Dutch; influence of religious tolerance and cultural pluralism more pronounced than in New England or the South.
    • Religious groups: Dutch influence and religious freedom; Pennsylvania is notable for Quakers; Pennsylvania Dutch (German) communities; diversity in religion and culture.
  • Economic profile:
    • Strong fur trade (initially with the Dutch and later British involvement) along major rivers (Hudson, Delaware).
    • Geography supports substantial agricultural production; wheat becomes a major staple and export.
    • Wheat, fur, and timber are important trade goods; trade flows along key river networks (Hudson, Delaware, comparative routes to coastal markets).
  • Pennsylvania and the Quakers:
    • Quakers emphasize equality (native Americans, men and women, all groups).
    • The colony becomes a hospitable destination for various groups, including Germans (German-speaking settlers) and Dutch-influenced communities.
  • Pennsylvania Dutch and Germans:
    • Large influx of German-speaking settlers contributes to cultural and agricultural diversity; different farming practices and crafts.
  • Trade and markets:
    • The Middle Colonies serve as a bridge between New England and the South; they export wheat and fur and import manufactured goods from Britain.
  • Role in mercantile system:
    • Served as a key part of mercantilist trade due to diverse crops (notably wheat) and robust river networks facilitating transport and exchange.

Southern Colonies

  • Economic structure:
    • Long-standing agricultural orientation; less industrialization prior to the Civil War.
    • Upper South (Maryland, Virginia) focused on tobacco.
    • Lower South (South Carolina, Georgia) focused on rice (and later cotton).
    • Plantation economies rely heavily on enslaved labor for large-scale crop production.
  • Slavery and labor patterns:
    • Slavery is a central component of southern economy and social structure; plantation slavery drives agricultural output and wealth.
  • Economic trajectory:
    • Agriculture dominates; slower industrialization compared to the North and Middle Colonies until after the Civil War.

Mercantilism and Legislation (Key Acts)

  • Mercantilist framework:
    • Trade controlled to maximize England’s wealth and maintain a favorable balance of trade for the Empire.
    • Colonies supply raw materials; Britain manufactures those goods; colonies purchase manufactured goods from Britain.
    • Tariffs and restrictions are designed to keep colonial markets within the imperial system.
  • Navigation Acts (1651, 1660, 1663):
    • Laws restricting colonial trade to benefit England; aimed at ensuring a favorable balance of trade for England and limiting colonial competition.
    • Goal: keep wealth within the empire and regulate colonial commerce.
  • Wool Act (1699):
    • Prohibited the export of colonial wool outside the producing colony; wool produced in one colony could only be sold within that colony.
    • Economic effect: reduced cross-colony demand; lowered profits for wool producers who could otherwise sell to other colonies.
  • Hat Act (1732):
    • Limited apprenticeship and production scale in colonial hat shops (maximum two apprentices per shop); restricted mass production of hats in the colonies.
    • Comparative effect: British hat manufacturers could mass-produce in England, driving down costs; colonial hats remained relatively expensive (e.g., British-made hats cheaper than American-made hats).
  • Molasses Act (1733):
    • Imposed tariffs on molasses from non-British possessions (notably Cuba and non-British colonies) to steer rum production toward British sugar sources.
    • Economic consequence: raised costs for rum production in the colonies that relied on Caribbean sugar/molasses; encouraged use of Jamaica sugar to favor British interests; impacts on colonial rum industry, especially in New England.
  • Iron Act (1750):
    • Encouraged iron production but restricted colonial manufacturing of iron into finished products; colonies could export raw iron but not perform certain processing (no cutting, slitting, or rolling) domestically.
    • Result: colonists export iron as raw materials, allowing Britain to control processing, pricing, and downstream manufacturing.
  • Glass Act (briefly referenced as “Glass Act” in slides):
    • Included as part of mercantilist restrictions; implied limits on colonial glass production and trade; fit within the broader pattern of restricting colonial manufacturing.
  • Overall mercantilist impact:
    • Acts collectively limit colonial industrial development, raise costs for colonists, and foster resentment that contributes to later calls for independence and free-market policies.
    • The shift toward capitalism and free markets in the post-independence era is framed as a response to these restrictions.

Trade, Goods, and Economic Flows

  • Major commodities by region:
    • New England: dried fish, timber; shipbuilding; rum (from molasses); flourishes in naval and merchant shipping owing to timber and fishing.
    • Middle Colonies: fur (via beaver pelts) and wheat; river-based trade routes; mixed agricultural outputs.
    • Southern Colonies: tobacco (Upper South); rice (Lower South); plantation-driven agriculture; slavery integral to production.
  • Transatlantic trade dynamics:
    • England imports raw goods (fish, timber, furs, tobacco, rice, sugar/molasses) and re-exports manufactured goods.
    • Colonies import manufactured goods from Britain; the cycle supports Britain’s industrial output and controls colonial market pricing.
  • Slavery and the Atlantic triangular trade:
    • Noted presence of enslaved people in the Atlantic economy; traders move enslaved Africans and Caribbean labor into colonial settings.
    • Rum production in New England connected to the sugar/molasses trade from the West Indies; enslaved labor often used in sugar/molasses production and rum distillation.

Geography, Rivers, and Strategic Trade Routes

  • Ohio River, Mississippi River, and Gulf of Mexico connectivity:
    • The Ohio River Valley serves as a critical corridor for trade and expansion; control over this region is contested by France and Britain.
    • Ohio River connects to the Mississippi and thus to the Gulf, enabling global trade reach for goods produced in the interior.
  • French and British riverine strategies:
    • French focus on establishing footholds along the rivers and Great Lakes to control beaver pelts and trade networks.
    • British expansion seeks territorial claims and settlement, facilitated by river networks like the Hudson and Delaware Rivers.
  • Territorial map context (as described in lecture):
    • Ohio River Valley contested between French (control) and British settlers/investors (e.g., Ohio Company of Virginia).
    • The geography of rivers shapes military campaigns and subsequent territorial changes.

European Context and Major Wars (18th Century)

  • King William's War (1689–1697):
    • Part of the League of Augsburg; reaction to French expansion under Louis XIV.
    • War in Europe spills over to North America, with colonial theaters of action in the Northeast.
  • Queen Anne's War (1702–1713):
    • Related to the War of the Spanish Succession in Europe; territorial realignments in North America; status quo largely preserved in North America after the war.
  • War of Austrian Succession / King George’s War (1740–1748):
    • In Europe: War of Austrian Succession; in North America sometimes called King George’s War.
    • France and Britain contend for power with the Habsburgs and Bourbons; Prussia aligns with Britain against Austria/Habsburgs.
    • In North America, England gains Newfoundland and Nova Scotia (Acadia) as a result of European diplomacy, while Bourbon-leaning powers adjust European influence.
  • War of the Spanish Succession context (early 1700s):
    • Bourbon consolidation in Spain (Philip V) shifts balance of power in Europe; England, France, and Austria/Habsburgs realign across theaters.
  • Prussia and Frederick the Great (early–mid 18th century):
    • Prussia emerges as a major European power; aggressive leadership under Frederick the Great; aligns with Britain against Austria in the mid-18th century.
    • Prussia’s military prowess becomes pivotal in the global conflict during the Seven Years' War, including its role in North America after 1758.
  • Summary of European influence on North America:
    • European alliances and wars shape colonial borders, settlements, and military campaigns in North America.
    • The outcome of these wars directly affects colonial policies, population movements, and future independence movements.

Albany Plan of Union and Continental Governance

  • Albany Congress and the Albany Plan of Union (1754):
    • Benjamin Franklin proposes a unified colonial framework for defense, treaty-making with Native groups, and centralized revenue-raising mechanisms.
    • Plan envisions a federal-like structure but with no strong central executive; a cooperative framework among 13 colonies.
    • The famous “Join or Die” motif appears with a cut-up snake representing the colonies and a call to unity for collective security.
  • Colonial reception:
    • Initially, colonists reject the plan due to concerns about giving up local autonomy and fears of centralized control over colonial affairs.
    • Although unsuccessful then, the Albany Plan foreshadows later attempts at colonial cooperation and informs the eventual Articles of Confederation (1777).
  • Connection to later governance:
    • The Albany Plan is a progenitor to the Articles of Confederation, showing an early attempt to balance unity with local sovereignty in the face of imperial conflict.

French and Indian War (1754–1763) and Major Battles

  • Trigger and early stages:
    • The Ohio Company of Virginia seeks to secure the Ohio River Valley for British interests; tensions escalate with France controlling the region and its forts.
    • George Washington, with Iroquois guides, leads a reconnaissance/expedition; a confrontation occurs near Fort Duquesne; Port Necessity is built by Washington but falls to French forces.
    • Port Necessity is abandoned after French attack; Washington is captured and later released; his retreat becomes a notable early action in the war.
  • Braddock’s Expedition (1755):
    • Edward Braddock leads a large British force toward Fort Duquesne; miscalculation and underestimation of French/Native tactics lead to a disastrous defeat for Braddock.
    • Washington earns a reputation for leadership in retreat and strategic withdrawal; Braddock is killed.
  • The shift in command and strategy (1756–1758):
    • William Pitt becomes the effective British leader; prioritizes North American theater, expands military presence, and shifts toward professional troops and supplies.
    • Fort Duquesne is captured and renamed Fort Pitt (later Pittsburgh) under British command.
  • Monongahela and Washington’s role:
    • The Battle of the Monongahela (1755) demonstrates the British vulnerability in early campaigns; Washington’s leadership emerges through the retreat.
  • The Quebec campaign (1759):
    • British siege of Quebec on the Saint Lawrence River; assault up the cliff at dawn after a three-month siege; both French and British commanding officers die in the battle.
    • British victory secures control of Quebec; Montreal falls soon after, effectively ending major French military presence in North America.
  • Global scope of the war (Seven Years' War):
    • The conflict expands to the Caribbean, the Great Lakes region, East Indies, and Europe; it’s a true world war by its end (1763).
  • Outcomes for North America:
    • The Treaty of Paris (1763) ends the war in North America (and globally).
    • Territorial changes: France cedes most of its North American territories; England gains Canada and lands east of the Mississippi; Spain acquires French lands west of the Mississippi and the port of New Orleans; Florida is ceded to England.
    • Post-war reorganizations set stage for future imperial tensions and colonial resentment toward British rule.

Treaty of Paris 1763 and Territorial Reconfigurations

  • North American territorial outcomes:
    • France loses most of its North American possessions; English control extends over Canada and lands east of the Mississippi River.
    • Spain cedes Florida to England (later returned to Spain in 1783, post-American Revolution).
    • England acquires Florida; Spain gains Louisiana Territory west of the Mississippi (to counterbalance British dominance in the East and Gulf regions).
  • Implications for the colonies:
    • Expanded English territorial claims in North America; increased colonial exposure to frontier conflicts with Native groups and European powers.
    • Tensions and costs of imperial supervision contribute to colonial dissatisfaction with imperial policy and taxation approaches.
  • Later consequences:
    • By 1783, the Treaty of Paris (1783) returns Florida to Spain but otherwise leaves British presence in North America footprint significant, setting the stage for future conflicts and policy debates in the United States.

People, Concepts, and Metaphors to Remember

  • Key figures:
    • George Washington: early military leader; Port Necessity; Battle of Monongahela; later pivotal figure in American independence.
    • Edward Braddock: British commander whose defeat highlights early colonial military weaknesses.
    • William Pitt: reorganizes and strengthens British efforts in North America during the mid-1750s.
    • Louis XIV (the Fourteenth) and Bourbon France: expansionist monarch whose policies trigger multiple European wars affecting the colonies.
    • Maria Theresa: Habsburg ruler whose reign intersects with European conflict dynamics; her lineage connects to the later coupling with France and Spain in broader wars.
    • Frederick the Great: Prussian monarch, renowned military leader who aligns with Britain in European conflicts and contributes to North American outcomes.
  • Metaphors and maps:
    • Albany Plan of Union: “Join or Die”—a snake image representing the colonies; emblem of attempted unity in the face of imperial conflict.
    • Rivers as arteries of empire: Hudson, Delaware, Ohio, and Mississippi serve as crucial trade routes and strategic frontiers.
  • Economic and policy concepts:
    • Mercantilism: imperial policy driving colonial production, trade restrictions, and navigation acts.
    • Anti-mercantilist sentiment: eventual shift toward free market principles and capitalism after independence.

Connections to Foundational Concepts and Real-World Relevance

  • Foundational principles:
    • Mercantilist policies explain early British colonial governance and the economic rationale behind restricted colonial manufacturing and trade.
    • The idea of “raw goods to Britain, manufactured goods back to colonies” lays groundwork for later debates about taxation, representation, and economic independence.
  • Real-world relevance:
    • The colonial experience with mercantilism helped seed a preference for free trade and market competition, contributing to the later revolution and the rise of capitalist economic principles in the United States.
  • Ethical and philosophical implications:
    • Slavery’s role in colonial economy contrasts with Quaker ideals of equality (notably in Pennsylvania) and foreshadows ongoing tensions about liberty and human rights.
    • The push for unity (Albany Plan) versus local autonomy highlights foundational debates about centralized governance, representation, and the balance between collective security and local sovereignty.

Quick Reference: Key Dates and Numbers (LaTeX format)

  • Navigation Acts: 1651, 1660, 1663
  • Wool Act: 1699
  • Hat Act: 1732
  • Molasses Act: 1733
  • Iron Act: 1750
  • Albany Plan of Union: 1754
  • King William's War: 1689–1697
  • Queen Anne's War: 1702–1713
  • War of Austrian Succession / King George’s War: 1740–1748
  • French and Indian War: 1754–1763
  • Quebec battle: 1759
  • Treaty of Paris (North America): 1763
  • Florida transfer and later 1783 adjustments: 1763 (Florida to England), 1783 (Florida back to Spain)
  • Colonial shipbuilding share in Britain: about 30\% of Britain’s ships built in New England
  • Iron production share: around \frac{1}{7} of the world’s iron produced in the colonies by mid-18th century
  • Major monetary example (illustrative costs for iron processing):
    • Bar iron: \$5
    • Horse-shoe iron: \$12
    • Needle production: \$3{,}500
    • Balance springs / watches: \$300{,}000
  • Slavery and sugar/rum economy notes:
    • Slaves from Africa and the Caribbean integrated into colonial economies; molasses and sugar inputs drive rum production.