BOW MOD 2

Chapter 2: Understanding & Evaluating Science

• The social environment of researchers influences:

  • What questions are asked

  • What methods are used

  • Who conducts the experiment

  • How the results are interpreted

Science as a Way of Knowing

• Characteristics of scientific inquiry:

  • Systematic observation of the natural world

  • Rational interpretation of observations

  • Experimental method includes:

    • Varying a single factor while holding others constant

    • Assuming differences in outcome are attributable to that factor

    • Positive and negative controls are used

    • Assumes the natural world is stable, constant, and knowable

    • Conclusions can be applied to larger contexts

    • Prediction is the strongest test of scientific conclusions

The Power and Limitations of Science

• Example: Birth Control Pills

  • Experiments revealed:

    • Fluctuating estrogen triggers ovulation

    • Constant estrogen levels suppress ovulation

  • Resulted in the development of oral contraceptives

  • Science cannot dictate ethical decisions regarding their use

The Amoral Nature of Science

• Science is limited to observable and measurable phenomena:

  • Cannot address morality, spirituality, or ethics

  • Can inform how to act but not guide ethical direction

• Importance of ELSI concerns in grant programs

• Role of scientific literacy:

  • Empowers citizens to evaluate information

  • Helps individuals integrate scientific knowledge with social and cultural concerns

  • Essential for democratic decision-making processes

The Process of Science

1. Make observations and develop a hypothesis

2. Attempt to disprove the hypothesis

3. If not disproved, results undergo peer review

4. Published results become part of our knowledge base

5. Reproducibility of results through repeated experiments leads to established findings

B&B Example: Boys and Throwing

• Observations:

  • Boys more accurate than girls in early Little League

  • Adult men engage more in ball sports than adult women

  • Hunter-gatherer societies show men hunting more than women

• Hypothesis generation:

  • Hypothesis 1: Boys' brains have innate advantage for throwing skills

  • Alternative hypotheses exist

Testing Hypotheses using Deductive Reasoning

• Deductive reasoning requires making specific predictions:

  • Formulated as "If... then..." statements

  • Example:

    • "If boys have an inborn throwing skill, then boys will outperform girls when throwing javelins."

  • Testing should analyze data for pattern recognition

  • Consider alternative explanations for observed outcomes

Understanding Controls in Experiments

• Controls provide essential comparisons:

  • Experimental group receives treatment; control group does not

• Types of blinds in experiments:

  • "Blind": Subjects unaware of treatments

  • "Double-blind": Neither subjects nor researchers know treatments

  • Random assignment to groups is preferable

  • Purpose of controls:

    • Confirm experimental validity and control bias

Evaluating Scientific Hypotheses

• Experimental insights by B&B:

  • Scientific hypotheses cannot be proven in absolute terms

  • Acceptance hinges on lack of contradictory evidence and rejection of plausible alternatives

  • Maintain open-mindedness; scientific understanding can evolve

The Challenge of Control Groups

• Evaluating the javelin experiment:

  • Boys as experimental and girls as control group

  • Challenges in isolating variables:

    • Are differences due to brain attributes or socialization factors?

• Decisions based on results:

  • Potential employment considerations based on throwing ability

Ethical and Experimental Limits with Humans

• Ideal control would raise girls under the same conditions as boys, which is impractical:

  • Societal norms differ widely

  • Impact on socialization and expectations

• Fields that study humans (medicine, psychology) encounter ethical challenges:

  • Variability in control limitations

Nature vs. Nurture in Research

• Correlation vs. causality:

  • Correlation does not imply causation

  • Examining statistics (e.g., breast cancer rates and estrogen use)

  • Importance of understanding underlying factors in correlations

  • Example: Female poverty affects healthcare, childcare, employment

Role of Animal Models in Research

• Ethical discussions surrounding animal use in research:

  • U.S. regulations govern animal research

• Animal results may not translate directly to humans:

  • Dissimilar effects of clomiphene citrate on ovulation in rats vs. humans

Human Biology and Experimental Bias

• Potential biases impacting outcomes:

  • Observer bias through uneven treatment

  • Subject expectations guiding performance

  • Placebo effects arising from expectations

• Employing "blind" experiments offers balance to these biases

Science in the Media

• Critical evaluation of scientific reporting:

  • Assess reporting sources and the scientific method used

  • Look for acknowledgment of research limitations

  • Consider societal implications of findings

  • Utilize original reports for informed conclusions (e.g., PubMed)

The Social Context of Science

• Researchers may show bias towards preferred hypotheses

• Influence of funding bodies on research focus:

  • Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) and menopause example:

  • Consideration of health risks associated with synthetic estrogen

In Summary

• The scientific method provides a pathway to knowledge but is not the sole approach

• Science successfully addresses measurable questions, avoiding morality and spirituality

• Science wields significant influence over daily life; human factors permeate scientific endeavors

• Persistent questioning is essential in the scientific process.