Chapter 26

Chapter 26: The Table of Democracy (1960—1968)

American Portrait: The A&T Four

  • Sit-ins challenged segregation.

  • Challenged authority with persistence.

  • Emphasized nonviolence in activism.

  • Inspired fellow activists across the nation.

Grassroots Activism for Civil Rights

  • Activists grew impatient with the "deliberate speed" of the Brown v. Board of Education ruling.

  • The Greensboro sit-in inspired similar actions in other communities.

  • Forced public facilities to open their doors to African American patrons.

  • Formation of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) which unified white and African American protesters.

The New Liberalism

  • Emphasized faith in economic growth.

  • Advocated for government action to ensure full employment, strong consumer demand, and rising Gross National Product (GNP).

  • Perceived that only government could adequately address pressing social issues, including racial division and civil rights.

The New Conservatism

  • Criticized the federal government as overly large and active.

  • Influential figures included William F. Buckley and Russell Kirk through platforms like National Review.

  • Barry Goldwater represented a push for individualism and aggressive anti-Communism.

  • The Young Americans for Freedom pushed the Sharon Statement, advocating for conservative principles.

The New Left

  • The Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) emerged.

  • The Port Huron Statement called for participatory democracy.

The Presidential Election of 1960

  • John F. Kennedy campaigned on a platform of the New Frontier, focusing on fostering economic growth, rebuilding slums, ending poverty, improving education, and enhancing retirement benefits.

  • Richard Nixon promised a balanced budget and limited government, promoting Modern Republicanism.

The New Frontier

  • Kennedy's administration showcased faith in America's potential.

  • Launched a robust space program to meet Soviet challenges, exemplified by John Glenn's orbit around the Earth.

  • Initiated modest antipoverty measures, including the Area Redevelopment Act and the Omnibus Housing Act of 1961.

Civil Rights Movement

  • Introduction of Freedom Riders in 1961 to combat discrimination in public transportation.

  • The SNCC organized voter registration drives in Mississippi.

  • Federal troops were dispatched to desegregate the University of Mississippi.

  • Martin Luther King Jr. and the SCLC led a campaign in Birmingham, Alabama.

  • Attempts by George Wallace to block desegregation efforts at the University of Alabama.

  • The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom in 1963 became a historic event for civil rights.

American Landscape

  • Cape Canaveral, FL transformed from a missile test site to a hub for NASA, attracting a significant workforce and tourism.

Flexible Response and the Third World

  • Shifts in American foreign policy under Kennedy to a flexible response strategy, enhancing military and Special Forces operations.

  • Establishment of the Peace Corps and Alliance for Progress.

  • Continued CIA interventions, such as the Bay of Pigs invasion and Operation Mongoose.

Confrontations with the Soviets

  • Construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961 symbolized Cold War tensions.

  • The Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962 prompted changes in nuclear policy, leading to the Limited Test Ban Treaty of 1963.

Kennedy and Vietnam

  • The South Vietnamese government led by Diem faced insurgency from Viet Cong guerrillas.

  • The U.S. increased support via financial aid and military advisers until Diem's overthrow in November 1963, shortly before Kennedy's assassination.

The Great Society

  • Johnson’s platform of new liberalism emphasized protection for individual rights and activism in government.

Lyndon Johnson’s Mandate

  • Johnson's policies embraced innovation, activist government, and economic growth tied to civil rights.

  • His adversary, Goldwater, stood for smaller government and strong anti-communist measures.

"Success Without Squalor"

  • The Office of Economic Opportunity coordinated a series of antipoverty programs including Food Stamps, Head Start, Legal Services, and the Model Cities Program.

  • Introduced Medicare and Medicaid and implemented consumer protection and environmental laws.

Preserving Personal Freedom

  • Supreme Court decisions expanded rights for individuals, including landmark cases like New York Times v. Sullivan, Gideon v. Wainwright, Miranda v. Arizona, Griswold v. Connecticut, and School District of Abington Township v. Schempp.

  • Tensions grew surrounding the balance of government power and individual rights.

The Death of Jim Crow

  • The Council of Federated Organizations organized the Freedom Summer to combat racial inequality.

  • Formation of the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party led by Fannie Lou Hamer.

  • Passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965 represented significant legal victories against segregation.

The American War in Vietnam

Johnson’s Decision for War

  • Johnson aimed to uphold U.S. commitments in Vietnam, increasing advisers and covert actions against North Vietnam via the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution.

  • Initiated Operation Rolling Thunder and committed ground troops in 1965.

Fighting a Limited War

  • Emphasized conventional weapons and a strategy for a negotiated peace but proved ineffective against guerrilla tactics.

The War at Home

  • SDS and student radicals spearheaded the antiwar movement amid frustrations over U.S. support for undemocratic regimes abroad.

  • Social issues intertwined with economic concerns, leading to teach-ins and anti-inflation fears.

The Great Society Comes Apart

The Emergence of Black Power

  • Acknowledging the slow progress against racial inequalities, which led to intensified frustrations and riots.

  • Malcolm X and Stokely Carmichael championed a rejection of integration in favor of Black Power, leading to the formation of the Black Panther Party.

Race Riots

  • Expression of long-standing frustrations manifesting in urban riots stemming from poverty and discrimination.

The Youth Rebellion

  • The Free Speech Movement at UC Berkeley led by Mario Savio challenged institutional conformity, contributing to the growth of the counterculture movement.

  • Counterculture characterized by rejection of materialism through sex, drugs, and rock 'n' roll, coinciding with access to oral contraception.

Struggles for Democracy

Protest in the Schools

  • Secondary school protests arose over dress codes, reflecting broader democratic issues that aligned with civil rights activism.

The Rebirth of the Women’s Movement

  • Betty Friedan's "The Feminine Mystique" ignited discussions around women's rights.

  • The Equal Pay Act of 1963 had minimal impact, leading to the formation of the National Organization for Women (NOW) advocating for equal opportunities and access to reproductive rights.

  • A more radical women's liberation movement criticized capitalism and patriarchy.

Conservative Backlash

  • George Wallace's law and order campaign reflected societal anger towards youth rebellion and activism across civil rights and antiwar movements.

  • Ronald Reagan rose as a conservative figure opposing high taxes and advocating for increased military intervention in Vietnam.

1968: A Tumultuous Year

  • Major events included the Tet Offensive in Vietnam, primary challenges from Eugene McCarthy and Robert Kennedy, and the assassinations of Martin Luther King Jr. and Robert Kennedy, ultimately leading to Richard Nixon's election victory.