Social 10: Chapter 7 - Legacies of Historical Globalization in Canada

Vocabulary

Indian Act - First passed by the Canadian parliament in 1867 and amended several times since then, this act continues to define who is - and who is not - a status India. Early versions of the act banned some traditional practices of First Nations cultures and allowed only those who renounced Indian Status to vote in federal elections

Cultural Mosaic - A society that is made up of many distinct cultural groups

Status Indian - someone who is registered according to the provisions of the Indian Act and is, therefore, eligible to receive special benefits

Multiculturalism - An official Canadian government policy founded on the idea that Canadian society is pluralistic - made up of many distinct cultural groups who are free to affirm and promote their own cultural identity

Quiet Revolution - A period of intense social, political, and economic change in Quebec. During this period, which lasted from about 1960 to 1966, Quebecois began to assert their rights and affirm and promote their language and culture

Residential Schools - Boarding schools where First Nations children were gathered to live, work, and study. These schools were operated or subsidized by the Canadian government as an important element of the government’s assimilation policy. The last residential school closed in 1996.

Cultural Pluralism - The idea that a variety of peoples are free to affirm and promote their customs, traditions, beliefs, and language within a society

Early Exploration of Canada

The early exploration of Canada had little to do with establishing colonial outposts and much more to do with the idea of discovering a new and quicker route to the riches of Asia

1497 - John Cabot - Newfoundland - Britain

1534 - Jacques Cartier - Quebec - France

Thus, it was over a century from the time of Cabot and Cartier before any semblance of permanent settlement was established in Canada by Europeans

The few settlements that did result in the early 17th century was limited to two main commodities - fish and furs

In their efforts to obtain these items, the Europeans were greatly assisted by the Indigenous Peoples

• This brought the Indigenous Peoples into globalized trade

The Genocide of the Beothuk

The Beothuk people of Newfoundland were recorded as being the first casualties of European colonialism in North America

Conflict over access to coastal fishing led Europeans to begin hunting and killing the Beothuk, driving them inland

Those not killed outright became undernourished and died of starvation and disease. By 1829, all Beothuk were completely wiped out as a culture

Indigenous Peoples and European Explorers

Early settlements by Europeans was very gradual and did not pose much as a threat to Indigenous Peoples

In fact, the harshness of the Canadian climate made European settles reliant on Indigenous technology - teaching explorers how to hunt, how to get enough vitamin C, and how to travel using canoes, snowshoes, and toboggans

British Control of Canada

The competition between French and Britain eventually erupted into the Seven Years’ War which lasted from 1754 - 1763

• This ended with the Battle on the Plains of Abraham

This war resulted in Britain gaining control of a large territory of French speaking citizens

Initially, the British intended to assimilate the French through, the Royal Proclamation Act of 1763 and by encouraging British settlers to come to Quebec

Accommodation Replaces Assimilation

The fact that the French greatly outnumbered the British in Quebec made assimilation a non-starter

It was quickly realized that concessions would be required to ensure the loyalty of the French population under British control

The Quebec Act of 1774 recognized French language and culture rights within the framework of British rule

The HBC and the Impacts of Mercantilism

At first, Hudson’s Bay Company traders limited their activities to coastal areas and relied on First Nations, such as the Cree, to carry furs to them

Inland forts were built later as competition with the rival North West Company intensified

Aboriginal people were caught up in this trade, which had global implications

The Legacy of Mercantilism

Both France and Britain followed mercantilist policies in Canada

Laws were in place to ensure raw materials were sent to the mother countries for processing/manufacturing

Mercantilism stifled development by ensuring that the country’s economy was limited to supplying raw materials

In Western Canada, the mercantilist trade in furs impacted Aboriginal people, who initially brought these furs to coastal forts to trade

The Efforts on Indigenous Peoples

Eventually, competition in the fur trade led to forts being established further inland

Settlement of the west followed and Aboriginal people were ultimately displaced off their lands

Post-Confederation Canada

After confederation in 1867, the Federal government began the process of expanding westward by gaining control of Rupert’s land in 1869

The success of the settlement plan, however, required the First Nations people to relinquish their claims on their territory peacefully

Numbered Treaties

A series of numbered treaties were signed between First Nations and the Canadian government between 1871 and 1921

These treaties, in effect, ceded land to the government for settlement in exchange for annual payments and other benefits, including education, health care, livestock, ect.

First Nations were given small parcels of land called reservations so they could ‘maintain’ traditional ways life. These lands were often less productive lands in remote areas

Promises made by government negotiators also did not always get included in written versions of the treaties, thus making it easier for the government to deny parts of the agreement

Cultural differences in the understanding of these treaties also contributed to feelings of resentment and betrayal

The Indian Act

The Indian Act was passed in 1876 as a means of strictly controlling the lives of Indigenous peoples

The objective of the Indian Act was to encourage assimilation

The act banned some cultural practices and also defined who was and was not a status Indian eligible for specified benefits

• Status Indian - someone who is registered according to the provisions of the Indian Act and is, therefore, eligible to receive special benefits

Critics argue the Indian Act:

• Ensures Indigenous peoples do not receive equal treatment

• Limits Indigenous rights to self governance and self-determination

• Assumes that the federal government officials are the best judges of Indigenous needs

Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples

In 1991, the RCAP was established to investigate the relationship between the federal government and Indigenous peoples

The commission was interested in investigating the question:

• “What are the foundations of a fair and honorable relationship between the Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples of Canada?”

In 1996, the final findings on Canadian relations with Indigenous peoples were provided”

• “The main policy direction, pursued for more than 150 years, first by colonial then by Canadian governments, has been wrong.”

As a result, the Canadian government issued a statement of reconciliation in 1998

• This acknowledged the harm done to Indigenous peoples by the hand of the Canadian government

Changing the Indian Act

An attempt to change the Indian Act was proposed in 2002, known was the First Nations Governance bill

The goal was to eliminate the harmful elements of the Indian Act while still maintaining the financial and treaty obligations

The government claimed it would give Indigenous communities wore power and would lead them to be more self-sustaining

Many Indigenous groups disagreed with the claims made by the Canadian government

• Indigenous groups played virtually no part in creating this bill

As a result, the Canadian government scrapped the bill

Debate surrounding the Indian Act is an ongoing issue today

Residential Schools

The introduction of Residential School System in Canada was intended to force the assimilation of Indigenous peoples into mainstream Canadian society

Under provisions of the Indian Act, children aged 6 to 15 were required by low to attend

Children were forcibly removed from their families, or their families were threatened with prison if they did not send their children willingly

Funded under the Indian Act by the federal government; the schools were run by churches of various denominations - about sixty per cent by Roman Catholics, and thirty per cent by the Anglican Church of Canada and the United Church of Canada

Deconstruction of Idenity

• Students were required to live on school premises. Most has no contact with their families for up to 10 months at a time because of the distance between their home communities and schools, and sometimes had no contact for years

• They were prohibited from speaking Aboriginal languages, even among themselves and outside the classroom, so that English or French would be learned and their own languages forgotten

Effects on Survivors

Possibly as many as 90% of the students experienced forms of sexual abuse

Over 50% of the children who passed through the residential school system did not survive to adulthood

75% reported that they had abused alcohol

50% reported that they had a criminal record

Reconciliation

In March 1998, the Canadian government made a statement of Reconciliation including on apology to those people who were sexually or physically abused while attending residential schools

The Aboriginal Healing Foundation was also created and provided $350 million to fund community-based healing projects focusing on addressing the legacy of physical and sexual abuse at Indian residential schools

In 2005, the Canadian government announced a $1.9 billion compensation package to benefit tens of thousands of survivors of abuse at Indian Residential schools

And, on June 11, 2008, Prime Minister Stephan Harper publicly apologized to an audience of Aboriginal delegates on national television for past government’s policies of assimilation. The Prime Minister apologized not only for the known excesses for the residential school system, but for the creation of the system itself

Truth & Reconciliation Commission

What is the TRC? The TRC is a component of the Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement. Its mandate is to inform all Canadians about what happened in Indian Residential Schools (IRS). The Commission will document the truth of survivors, families, communities, and anyone personally affected by the IRS experience

Canada and Multiculturalism

Immigration and Canada

Up until the mid 20th century, Canada’s policy on immigration was based largely on race

• British immigrants were recruited

• Those who did not come from Europe/America were discouraged

However, attitudes were changing and Canadians started to believe on respecting and accommodating differences

• This laid the foundations for a diverse society

By 1968, Canada’s immigration policy became more accepting and immigrants were flowing from Asia, Africa, and the Caribbean

By the 1970s, most immigrants to Canada were from minority groups

This added to Canada’s cultural mosaic

• Mix of ethnic groups and cultures that coexist in a society

Multiculturalism

To deal with the increasing diversity in Canada, the government enacted a policy of multiculturalism in 1971

• The idea that a country is made up of many culturally distinct groups

• Rejects assimilation and embraces cultural pluralism

  • The idea that people are free to retain their own cultural traditions

Backlash on Multiculturalism

Not everyone agreed with the policy of multiculturalism

• Some Quebecois believed it was a strategy to undermine Francophone culture

• Some believed it would erode Canada’s “British heritage”

Despite the opposition, the idea of multiculturalism enjoys broad public support

• A 2002 survey found that 74% if respondents support this policy

• Many have come to view diversity as a hallmark of Canadian identity

Legacies of Historical Globalization in Canada

Internment Camps - German/Ukrainian

By the start of WWI, more than 1 million German and Austria-Hungarian immigrants lived in Canada

• Due to WWI, people feared that these people could be spies

German and Ukrainian immigrants were labeled as enemy aliens

• They were ordered to report regularly to police

Although no evidence of disloyalty was over found, their rights were still restricted

• An example of this was losing the right to vote

More than 8500 people were placed into internment camps

• Conditions were prison-like

People were forced to work in mines, as well as building roads in Banff and Jasper National Parks

In recent history, Ukrainian communities have worked for reconciliation for these injustices

• The federal government provides $2.5 million for memorials and internment education, but no apology was ever given

Internment Camps - Japanese

During the late 19th/early 20th century, many Japanese immigrants settled in British Columbia

During WWII, Japan bombed Pearl Harbor and attacked Canadian soldiers in Hong Kong

• In response, the Canadian government moved Japanese Canadians away from the Pacific Coast

  • They were moved to the B.C. interior and into the prairies into internment camps

Prisoners could only bring what they could carry

• All other possessions were confiscated and sold to pay for their internment

Conditions in these camps were extremely poor

• Up to 10 families forced into small huts for living

• Food shortages so extreme that Red Cross had to provide emergency rations at times

After the war, Japanese Canadians wanted compensation for their internment

• The government provided $21 000 to each person interned in 1988 and issued an official apology