Mrs. Minasyan Final AP Euro Review Units 1-5

Background

1. The Renaissance is considered the beginning of modern European history

2. Renaissance c 1300-1600

   1. Occurred first in Italy in 1300 and lasted until 1527 when Rome was sacked by foreign armies

   2. The Renaissance spread to northern Europe around 1450

   3. In England, the Renaissance did not begin until the 16th century and lasted until the early 17th century (eg Shakespeare)

   4. Also during this Martin Luther nailed the theses on the church wall, America was discovered, galileo, etc. Renaissance was the umbrella and under it were protestants, the Scientific Revolution, and the Age of Exploration. 

   5. Started in Italy until it was destroyed.

   6. Rebirth of classical antiquity. 

   7. It started in Italy because of trade routes, it was prosperous, but also because of The Medici Family. 

   8. The plague started in Italy, and so did the rebirth. Continuity and change over time which is what happened in Italy, (plague). 

   9. England does not experience this until the late 1500s

3. Origins of the concept of renaissance: 19th-century Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt claimed the Renaissance stood in stark contrast to the Middle Ages. Secondary source because he lived not in that time period.

4. Renaissance culture applied almost exclusively to the upper classes. The poor couldn't experience this because they were worried about surviving/jobs/putting food on the table.

   1. The upper classes had the luxury of time to spend learning the classics

   2. The peasantry was largely illiterate and the Renaissance ideas had little impact on common people. 

   3. The working classes and small merchants were far too preoccupied with the concerns of daily life. 

2. Rise of the Italian city-states

   1. Northern cities developed international trade venice, genoa, and Milan

      1. By 1300 signori (despots) or oligarchies (rule of merchant aristocracies) controlled all of the Italian peninsula.

      2. Italy became more urban.

   2. Politics among the Italian city-states

      1. Competition among city-states meant that Italy did not unify politically

      2. In effect, an early balance of power emerged. This is equality of power in the states 

      3. Political disunity eventually led to the downfall of the city-states in the late 1400s and early 1500s which would lead to the conquering of Italian city-states

   3. Major city-states and figures

      1. The Republic of Florence (included Genoa)

         1. Center of the Renaissance during the 14th and 15th centuries

         2. Dominated by the Medici family (patrons of art)

         3. Cosimo de Medici allied with other powerful families in Florence and became the unofficial ruler of the republic

   4. Duchy of Milan

      1. Ruled by the Sforza family after 1450 

      2. Milan was a major enemy of Florence and Venice

      3. The peace of Lodi created a 50-year period of relative peace in northern Italy

         1. The peace was in part a response to concerns over the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople a year earlier

         2. It created a stable balance of power for a time.

   5. Rome the papal states: popes served as religious and political leaders; controlled much of central Italy

   6. venice  venetian republic 

      1. Longest lasting of the Italian city-states

      2. Greatest maritime power in Italy

   7. Naples kingdom of the two Sicilies

      1. Included the southern Italian region of  Naples and the island of Sicily

      2. Only Italian city-state to officially have a king

      3. Controlled by France between 1266-1435

      4. Controlled by Spain after 1435.

   8. Decline of the Italian city-states

      1. The French invasions of Italy began in 1494

         1. Milan’s despot Ludovico “the Moor” invited French king Charles 8 to invade Naples Milan’s traditional enemy

         2. This was the beginning of the foreign invasions in Italy

      2. When Florence tried to appease France during its invasion it led to the overthrow of the Medici family

      3. Italy became a battleground in a series of struggles between Spain and France.

         1. Spanish fears of a French-Italian alliance led to its alliance with Venice, the papal states, and the Holy Roman Empire

   9. 1527 the sack of Rome by the armies of Charles V who was also king of Spain symbolized the end of the Renaissance in Italy. 

Key concepts 1.1

3. Humanism

   1. Characteristics 

      1. Revival of antiquity (Greece and Rome) in philosophy, literature, and art. Plato was from Greece, and Cicero was from the Romans.

         1. Sought to reconcile or harmonize pagan writings with Christian thought. (they were pagan, so they thought about mythology and the Roman gods. They were not Christian)

   2. Strong belief in individualism and the great potential of human beings (in contrast to the Middle Ages, where humans were seen as small, wicked, and inconsequential and should focus solely on earning salvation). People as individuals did not matter. They wanted to help to get to heaven. In contrast, in the Renaissance, they acknowledged each other because they started to put their names on their things because they started to matter. 

      1. Virtu: the quality of being a man; the idea of excelling in all of one's pursuits. You were a Renaissance person if you were like this. 

      2. They believed the key to a good life was reason and nature

   3. Secularism: interest in things that are not religious; humanism in Italy focused on non-Christian subject matter in literature, art, and politics. 

      1. Shifted the focus of education toward classical texts and away from theology

   4. Focused first on studying ancient languages:

      1. Latin

      2. Greek. After the fall of the Byzantine Empire.

      3. By 1500, ancient Roman and Greek texts that were significant were discovered and printed in vernacular languages

   5. Largely rejected Aristotelian views and medieval scholasticism in favor of 

      1. Roman authors 

      2. Greek writings

      3. Early Christian writings, especially the New Testament

         1. Occurred predominantly in northern Europe and became a cornerstone of the Northern Renaissance

   6. Believed in a liberal arts educational program that included grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history, politics, and moral philosophy

   7. Civic humanism: it held that education should prepare leaders who would be active in civic affairs. 

      1. Some of the most important humanists were important political leaders like Coluccio Salutati, Leonardo Bruni, and Francesco Guicciardini

   8. Petrarch: father of civic humanism.

      1. Considered the first modern writer

      2. In his writings literature was no longer subordinate to religion

      3. Considered the middle ages to be the dark ages

      4. Obsessed with cicero

      5. Perhaps the first to use critical textual analysis to ancient texts

      6. Wrote his most well known poetry in the italian vernacular

      7. Most texts in this era were written in latin

   9. Leonardo Bruni

      1. First to use the term humanism

      2. Among the most important of the civic humanists

      3. He wrote a history of Florence perhaps the first modern history and wrote a narrative using primary source documents and the division of historical periods. 

   10. Lorenzo valla

       1. Foremost experiment on the latin language (elegeances of the latin language)

       2. (On the false donation of Constantine)

          1. He exposed the donation of Constantine as an 8th-century fraud

          2. The church had claimed it had been granted vast territories by the 4th-century Roman emperor Constantine

       3. He also exposed errors in the Latin Vulgate, the official catholic bible

   11. Marsislio Ficino: Platonic academy starter

       1. One of the most influential humanist philosophers of the 15th century

       2. Founded the Platonic Academy at the behest of Cosimo de Medici

          1. This resulted in the spread of Plato’s works throughout much of Europe

       3. Translated plato’s works into Latin, giving modern Europeans access to these works for the first time. 

   12. Pico Della Mirandola 

       1. Member of the platonic academy

       2. Oration on the Dignity of Man

          1. Perhaps the most famous Renaissance work on the nature of mankind

          2. God created humans and were therefore given tremendous potential for greatness, and even union with god if they desired it. (means that they do not have to go to church and have to pay concessions)

          3. However, humans could, through neglect, also choose a negative course. Thus, humans had free will to be great or to fail. (HUMAN POTENTIAL)

   13. Niccolo Machiavelli, The Prince

       1. It was the quintessential political treatise of the 16th century

          1. His views were decidedly secular and his emphasis on individualism reflected humanist philosophy

          2. He observed the political leadership of Cesare Borgia (son of Pope Alexander 6) who had ambitions of uniting Italy under his control

          3. Stated that politically “the end justifies the means” - you have to do whatever is necessary. Use kind words, use persuasion, etc. Make people get on your side whatever it takes. If they don't, be ruthless and be forceful. DO WHAT IT TAKES TO GET THIS POWER.

       2. For rulers “it was better to be feared than to be loved”

       3. Rulers had to be practical and cunning( foxy), in addition to being aggressive and ruthless. Lion and fox. 

          1. At times rulers should behave like a lion (aggressive and powerful) and other times like a fox (cunning and practical)

       4. The prince continued to influence European rulers for centuries

   14. Baldassare Castiglione (Book of the Courtier)

       1. Perhaps the most important Renaissance work on social etiquette

       2. He described the ideal of a Renaissance man who was well versed in the greek and Roman classics an accomplished warrior, could play music, dance and had most but confident personal demeanor

          1. This contrasted with the medieval view of being a master in only one area

          2. virtu: it was the quality of being a great man in whatever noble pursuit

   15. Johann Gutenberg: Printing press 

       1. One of the most important inventions in human history (allowed the spread of knowledge)

       2. The development of moveable type made possible the spread of humanistic literature at an astonishing speed

       3. No longer would copies of works need to be done individually by hand

       4. 1457-58: Published the first printed bible in the city of Mainz

       5. Facilitated the phenomenal spread of the reformation

       6. The printing press encouraged the growth of vernacular literature that led eventually to development of culture

4. Renaissance Art

   1. Patronage 

      1. In addition to religious art artists emphasized individuals and everyday life, subjects that were now deemed appropriate by elites who commissioned these words. 

   2. Massive patronage for the arts came from wealthy merchant families such as the Medicis who commissioned countless works from the great artists

      1. In essence, the wealth of Florence was mirrored by the superb artistic output of the Renaissance

         1. A good example is donatello's david which stood in the Medici courtyard during the wedding of lorenzo medici

         2. In milan the sforza’s commissioned such works such as The Last Supper

   3. Patronage also came from local churches who increasingly saw renaissance art as a means of glorifying God. Some examples included

      1. Brunelleschi's duomo 

      2. Ghiberti's two sets of doors

      3. Michelangelo's David

   4. Rome became the artistic center in the Cinquecento (1500s)

      1. The decline of florence in the late 1400s resulted in a shift to rome

      2. Pope Alexander VI spent huge sums on patronage

      3. Notable works commissioned by the church in this period include

         1. Michelangelo dome atop st Peter's basilica his paintings in the Sistine chapel, and the Pitea

         2. Raphael's school of athens

         3. Bramante's tempietto and his floor plan for a newly rebuilt st peter's cathedral

   5. New artistic techniques

      1. Painting

         1. Geometric perspective: three dimensional effects on a two dimensional surface

            1. Medieval works in contrast looked flat and two dimensional

            2. There was more perspective (linear)

         2. Renaissance art is going to show emotion while medieval art is just an expression/ a way

         3. Chiaroscuro: the use of dark and light colors to create the illusion of depth

         4. faces of subjects expressed unique individual characteristics (embodying the Renaissance ideal of individualism)

            1. Renaissance subjects typically showed more emotion

            2. Medieval paintings were more stylized (in their portrayal of human faces)

            3. Sfumato was developed by leonardo da vinci a “smoky” effects technique of blurring or softening sharp lines

      2. Sculpture

         1. Medieval sculpture often appeared on buildings and tombs, were highly detailed, and did not glorify the human body.

            1. They were relief sculptures protruding from a surface. 

            2. Medieval ones were not free-standing (standing on their own) while Renaissance artists made free-standing sculptures. They were made like this to be seen in the round

               1. Renaissance sculptures were highly influenced by ancient Greek and Roman statuary 

            3. Many sculptures glorified the human body and many portrayed nude figures (like works in ancient Greece and Rome) because they wanted to study the accuracy of the human body and individualism was a huge part of Renaissance art

            4. Like Renaissance paintings many Renaissance sculptures glorified the individual

      3. Architecture

         1. The Gothic style of architecture during the Middle Ages was highly ornamented with pointed arches, spires, flying buttresses, and a grand scale

         2. Renaissance architecture utilized ancient Greek and Roman forms such as Greek temple architecture (with triangular pediments) columns, and Roman arches and domes (eg the Pantheon in Rome)

         3. The Renaissance emphasized simplicity, symmetry, and balance.

         4. Florentine renaissance artists

            1. Giotto (12666-1336): considered perhaps the first renaissance artist with his use of chiaroscuro and perspective

            2. Filippo brunellesci (1377-1446)

               1. Il Duomo atop Santa Maria del Fiore is his masterpiece it was the largest dome in Europe at the time of its construction

               2. He is considered the father of linear perspective

               3. Leon Battista Alberti

                  1. Architect of several famous cathedrals (used Greek and roman forms)

                  2. He wrote the first treatise/book or explanation on linear perspective although Burenelleschi is credited with inventing it

               4. Lorenzo ghiberty sculptor 

                  1. He won a famous contest in 1403 against Brunellsci that earned him a commission to script 

               5. Donatello sculpture

                  1. His bronze statue of David used a naked figure

                  2. Masaccio 

                  3. Perhaps the first renaissance painter to portray real nude human figures in 3d

                  4. The expulsion of Adam and eve, a fresco shows tremendous emotion

               6. Sandro Botticelli

                  1. The painting is a good example of humanism as the subject is Venus, the Roman goddess of love.

                  2. Venus stands in contrapposto

         5. High Renaissance centered in Rome

            1. The worldly renaissance popes Alexander 6, Julius 2, and Leo X provided tremendous patronage

            2. Characteristics: classical balance, harmony, and restraint

            3. Bramante- architect

               1. His tempietto (san Pietro in Montorio) marked the beginning of the high renaissance in rome when Alexander 6 appointed him to build a sanctuary that allegedly marked the spot where Peter was crucified (PETER IS AN APOSTLE)

               2. He was the principal architect of the rebuilt St Peter's (betrayed Jesus 3 times the day he was crucified. He said he would fight for him earlier. He was passionate. He was said to be the cornerstone of churches by jesus) cathedral although some of his plans were altered after his death 

4. Leonardo da Vinci

   1. He is often seen as the quintessential/ideal renaissance man

   2. Painter, sculptor architect, engineer, writer and scientist.

   3. Mona Lisa is considered one of the greatest masterpieces

   4. Developed the technique of sfumato, a haze that edges 

5. Vanishing point: the center where the linear perspective meets.

6. Raphael Santi 

   1. created many numerous “Madonna and Child” paintings

7. School of Athens

   1. the quintessential example of humanism in painting–Greco-Roman architecture is a prominent

   2. Plato and Aristotle are in the center of the painting.

8. Michelangelo

   1. Sistine Chapel, commissioned by Pope Julius the Second

4. Sculpture

   1. David, marble humanistic sculpture glorifies the human body

   2. Pieta Mary hold the limp body of Christ

      1. It was commissioned for a French cardinal’s funeral monument (the cardinal was a representative in Rome)

   3. Architecture

      1.  Michelangelo designed the enormous dome atop St. Peter’s Basilica. Bromante designed the Church.

   4. The Venetian School

      1. estTitan 

      2. Perhaps the greatest painter of the Venetian school

   5. Andrea Palladio: he is one of the most influential architects

5. Michel de Montaigne 

   1. Developed the essay form

      1. The essay became a vehicle for testing new ideas

   2. Skepticism

      1. He doubted that true knowledge could be obtained

      2. Believed that the skeptic must be cautious, critical, and suspend judgement.

      3. Thus, one must be tolerant of others views

6. William Shakespeare

   1. Greatest of the english renaissance authors

   2. His works reflected the renaissance ideas of classical greek and roman culture, individualism, and humanism

   3. Comedies, tragedies, histories, and sonnets

5. Northern Renaissance Art

   1. Flemish style: the low countries produced especially important artists

      1. Characteristics

         1. Heavily influenced by the Italian renaissance

         2. More minute detail throughout paintings(especially background) than the Italian Renaissance

         3. Use of oil paints in contrast to Italian Renaissance that used tempera

         4. More emotional than the Italian style

         5. Works preoccupied with death (common)

   2. Jan van Eyck

      1. Most famous and innovative flemish painter of the 15th century

      2. Perfected oil painting

      3. Naturalistic wood panel paintings used much religious symbolism

      4. Employed incredible detail

      5. Ghent Altarpiece

      6. Arnolfini and His Wife

   3. Peter Brueghel the elder

      1. Focused on the lives of ordinary people

      2. Not influenced much by the Italian renaissance

   4. Germany

      1. Albrecht Durer

         1. Foremost northern renaissance artist

         2. Master of the woodcut

         3. First northern artist to master italian renaissance techniques of proportion, perspective, and modeling

         4. Notable works include adam and eve; knight, Death, and the Devil and Four Apostles

      2. Hans Holbein the Younger

         1. Major themes of the era: exploration, religious discord, preoccupation with death, and the rising tide of international relations in an age of expansion.

      3. The Fugger family in Germany especially Jacob Fugger was significant in patronizing the art of the northern renaissance

         1. Their fortune was the result of international banking like the Medicis in Florence. 

6. Social Changes in the Renaissance 

   1. The nobility (2-3 percent)

   2. Ideal: baldassare castiglione

      1. The Book of Courtiers

   3. Peasants and townspeople (85-90 percent)

   4. Decline of manorialism and serfdom

   5. Urban hierarchy 

      1. Patricians, petty, burghers, shoekeepers, artisans, guild masters, guildsmen, workers, and unemployed

   2. Social Hierarchies

      1. Wealth and Nobility

         1. Hierarchy of wealth– more flexible

         2. Poor nobles had higher status than wealthy commoners

         3. Nobility integrated the new social elite of wealth

         4. Social status also linked to honor in war and occupations

         5. Sumptuary laws– reflected wealth and honor

      2. Gender Roles

         1. Querelle des femmes – debate about women’s character and nature “women have smaller brains, they shouldn’t study science and stuff” (what she said) 

         2. Misogynist (believed that women are devious, domineering and demanding) critiques prompted author to defend women

         3. Christine de Pizan– female author, made a living, supported 3 children, shows that women can do it

         4. Debate about female rulers

      3. Family marriage in Renaissance Italy

         1. Marriage

            1. Arranged, to strengthen business or family ties

            2. The importance of dowry

            3. Father-husabnd: head of family

            4. Wife managed the household

         2. Children

            1. The dangers of childbirth and child hood

         3. Sexual Norms

            1. Disparity in ages of spouses 

            2. Extramarital sexual relationships

   3. New Monarchs

      1. Consolidated power and created the first modern nation-states in France, England, and Spain

      2. Utilized ancient Roman law – sovereignty (all-powerful) of the people and nation rested with the ruler

   4. Characteristics of New Monarchs

      1. Reduced power of nobility through taxations and confiscation of land

      2. Hired mercenary (Swiss army) armies or created standing armies

      3. Reduced the political power of the clergy

      4. Created more efficient bureaucracies (way government operates)

   5. Opposition of the New Monarchs

      1. Nobles resented the decline of political influence 

      2. Clergy members saw popes as their leader, not the monarch

      3. Independent town resisted more centralized monarchical control

   6. England: Rise of Tudor Dynasty 

      1. Civil War and a New Monarchy

      2. The Wars of the Roses: House of York was defeated by House of Lancaster

   7. Henry VII 

      1. Reduced the power of nobility 

      2. Star chamber-  nobles were tried without jury and were often tortured

      3. Nobles were not allowed to have their own private armies

   8. Government

      1. English Parliament still had influence over taxation and government policy 

      2. However, the king used diplomacy and avoided wars and also avoided having to call on Parliament on regular basis

      3. Magna Carta – you cannot have trials without a jury

   9. The new Monarchy in France

      1. Background

         1. Valois dynasty

         2. Louis XI known as the “universal Spider” (known to have woven a web of plots and conspiracies). This is what made him such a good monarch. 

      2. Expanded French Boundaries

         1. Gained land in northern France

         2. Forced the English out of normandy

      3. Raised taxes without parliamentary consent 

         1. The estates-general (the French Parliament) asked Louis to rule without parliament in hopes of bringing order to the kingdom

         2. Imposed a permanent tax on salt

         3. Imposed a permanent tax on land

      4. Estates General met only once during his reign

         1. Ruthlessly suppressed nobles

         2. Actively encouraged economic growth

   10. The Growth of the French Monarchy

       1. Francis I

          1. Concordat of Bologna: The king now appointed bishops to the Gallican Church

          2. Major reasons why Reformation didn't take hold in France

          3. Taille: head tax on all land property

          4. Large royal army

   11. The new monarchy in Spain Ferdinand and Isabella

       1. Aragon

          1. Kingdom included the mediterranean part of the iberian peninsula, balearic Islands, sardinia, sicily, and the southern italian kingdom of naples

          2. Federniand 2 king of aragon

       2. Castile and leon

          1. Kingdom included the central part of the iberian peninsula and after 1492 vast sections of the new world

          2. Isabella 1 queen of Castile

       3. Personal union

          1. Ferdinand and Isabella were married in 1469. They were different nations. Their daughter is Juana (Joanna) the Mad and her son is Charles I or V which is important to know

          2. The two kingdoms remained politically separate, they did not merge. 

   12. The European state in the Renaissance

       1. The unification of Spain

       2. Isabella and Ferdinand made spain more unified by pursuing common foreign policy

       3. However, each maintained their Cortes (parliament), laws, coinage, and taxation

       4. Controlled nobility by excluding them from the royal council; instead recruited men trained in Roman Law. Nobles were not needed to control the law. 

       5. Convinced the pope to allow them to select most important church officials in spain

       6. Created unity and bolstered power

          1. The unification of spain

             1. 1492 entry into granada ended the reconquista

             2. The inquisition of 1478

                1. Resentment of jewish influence and wealth

                2. Anti semitic programs

                3. Officials claimed that jews could never be true christians

                4. Purity of blood laws

                5. All practicing jews and muslims expelled from spain or conversos or new christians

             3. Muslims in granada were forcibly baptized and investigated by the inquisition

             4. Absolute religious orthodoxy and purity of blood

             5. To be spanish=to be catholic; spain became pillar of the catholic church

   13. Holy roman emperor

       1. Title given to the leader of the holy roman empire

       2. Elected by 7 electors of the holy roman empire

          1. Elector palatine

          2. Elector saxony

          3. Elector bohemia

          4. Elector brandenburg

          5. Archbishop mainz

          6. Archbishop trier

          7. Archbishop cologne

       3. After 1438, only members of the Habsbugrg family were elected holy roman emperor

       4. Political reality: The Holy Roman Emperor was weak when compared to his counterparts in england and France his state was far more decentralized

       5. Introduction of centralizing institutions, but they proved ineffective in combating the traditional rights and privileges of the member states

          1. Maxmilian I 

             1. Empire divided to organize defense and collect taxes which was ineffective

             2. Created an imperial council

          2. Charles V

             1. born in the habsburg dynasty 

             2. Personally troubled by illnesses and a jaw because of inbreeding

             3. Chrales was already king of spain and controlled vast territories around the world when he was elected holy roman emperor in 1519

             4. Despite Being the most powerful ruler in europe at the time (he was called the universal monarch) he was not able to centralize the power of the HRE (it became even more decentralized)

             5. Problems face by charles V

                1. Protestant reformation

                2. War with france

                3. War with the Ottoman Empire

             6. Sum: France, England and Spain centralized but the Holy Roman Empire could not. NEW MONARCHS SAQ LEQ NEW MONARCHS ABSOLUTE MONARCH

   14. The struggle for strong monarchy in Eastern Europe

       1. Poland conflict between nobility and the crown

       2. Hungary short term centralization 1458-1490

       3. Russia overthrow of the mongols

       4. The Ottoman Turks and the end of the Byzantine Empire

          1. The spread of the Seljuk Turks

          2. Fall of Constantinople to the Turks (1453)

What Mrs. Minasyan Said that might be important:

• Florence is struggling because too many people are sinning.

• One of the highlights of the Renaissance is the potential of the individual.

• Learning and viewing things in the Renaissance can help people become better Christians.

•  Prince will come up  on the AP exam

• Christians persecuted Muslims and Jews in Europe. There were no atheists at that time. 

• Taking Christian teachings and pagan ideas and they combined them together

• Middle Ages was “we”, and Renaissance was “I”. Individuals start mattering.

• The higher you go, the closer you are to god. They were more mindful in the Renaissance.

• Male-dominated society. All about men.

• Before 1400 the most educated people were priests educated in theology but after , during the Renaissance, people started having different professions. 

• Ecclesiastic means church= important to know

• Know Burckhardt, Burke, the conquistadors and the new monarchs, and the main guys in Renaissance. 

• Slave trade: know the Colombian exchange

• Treaty of Tordesillas

• Causes of exploration

• Mercantilism, commercialism, bullionism

• Van like

• The European voyages of discovery

  • causes of European expansion

    • Demand for luxury goods from the east-revival after the black death

    • Spice-for diet as well as religious rituals, perfumes, medicines, and dyes

    • Religious fervor–ignited by the Christian Reconquista of the Iberian Peninsula

    • Curiosity about the physical universe

    • Spanish monarchs supported foreign ventures

      • Spanish upper-class men were easter to make voyages due to lack of opportunity at home

    • Competition - between European monarchs and between protestant and catholic states provided a steady stream of expeditions

    • Ill pay for sailors–motivated then to join the ship's crew to escape poverty; and find better lives. Others were orphans or poor boys without having a say

    • Sailors wives struggled to feed their families

    • Voyages paid for and steered by merchants

    • Educated public read tales of the travelers

  • Technology and the rise of exploration

    • Development in shipbuilding 

    • The caravel

    • Ptolemys geography

    • The magnetic compass and the astrolabe- made it easier to find their location

    • Gunpowder and the sternpost rudder - for pirates; protection

    • The lateen sail - change direction of the ship

    • Advances in cartography drew on the Judeo-Arabic mathematical tradition

  • The Portuguese overseas empire

    • Prince Henry (1394-1460) – sponsored annual expeditions down the western coast of Africa and supported the study of geography and navigation

    • Portuguese exploration policy–achieve military glory, convert Muslims, find gold, slaves and overseas route to the spice markets of India

    • The conquest of Ceuta in 1415 marked the beginning of European overseas expansion

    • First Portuguese African commercial settlement at Arguin (1443) 

    • Gold trading posts on the Guinea Coast

      • By 1500 Portugal controlled the flow of African gold to Europe

    • Cape of good hope(1487;1497)-Bartholemew Diaz then Vasco Da Gama

    • Vasco e Gama, port of Calicut–returned to Lisbon with spices and Indian cloth

    • Da Gama proved that trade with the East was possible via the Cape route

    • Foundation for Portuguese Imperialism

  • Spains voyages to the Americas

    • Columbus expedition 1492 ferdinand and isabellas name with viceroy over any territory he might discover and 1/10 of material rewards

    • Landed in the bahamas, san salvador

    • Enslaved the people of hispaniola and established settlers in new territories 

    • Revolts against columbus–royal expedition brought him back to spain and cleared his name but kept the territory under royal control

    • He believed he had discovered small islands off the coast of Asia. 

  • Spain “Discovers” the pacific early

    • Amerigo Vespucci realized that this new world was a continent separate from Asia

    • Treaty of Tordesillas gave spain everything west of an imaginary line drawn down the atlantic and portugal everything to the east of the line

    • Pedro Alvares Cabral on the coast of Brazil

    • Ferdinand Magellan sent by Charles V to find a direct route to the spices of the Moluccas 

    • Revolutionzied Europeans world's understanding

    • Spain abandoned the search for a passage to asia to focus on its new world territories

    • Theres more to the world than we know. Led to the questioning of the church. Led to the aid of reformation

  • Early Exploration by northern European Powers

    • English and french searched for a northwest passage to the indies

    • Futile voyages of Newfoundland and Canada by John Cabot, a Genoese merchant living in Lonon

    • French exploration of the Atlantic – Jacques Cartier explored the St.Lawrence River, it was halted at the great rapids but the French began a lucrative trading beaver and other fires

    • Competition for fishing trade bet. French, the Spanish and English 

• Conquest and Settlement

  • Spanish Conquest of the Aztec and Inca Empires

    • Spanish settlement of Hispaniola, Cuba, Puerto Rico, and other Caribbean islands

    • Hernando Cortes takes over mexico and conquistadors breed 

    • Women were more valuable, they were leaders, they had more power, etc compared to men being the leaders in europe and asia

  • Portuguese Brazil

    • Brazil territory made

  • Colonial empires of england and france

    • Virginia colony Jamestown (1607)

    • Enslaved Africans replaced indentured servants on tobacco and rice plantations; mercantilism; when servants were gone they started bringing slaves

    • English colonziation haphazard and decentralized; greater colonial autonomy

    • French established trading factories in present-day canada

    • Fortified trading posts in west Africa and India

  • Colonial administration

    • Spanish territories: new Spain and Peru

    • Portuguese system of captaincies in brazil

    • Converted them to Christianity

  • Indigenous population loss and economic exploitation

    • Encomienda system–Spanish crown grated the conquerors the right to employ groups of Indians in exchange forcibly for providing food, shelter, and Christian teaching

    • Tribute payments from Indigenous laborers

    • The new laws (1542) - passed by charles I set limits on the authority of encomienda holders, including passing their privileges to heirs

    • System of forced labor: repartimiento /mita- laborers recieved modest wages in exchange and each person had to wrk for a set period of time year year

    • Disastrous decline of Indigenous population due to warfare and disease

• The ear of global contact

  • Indigenous population loss and economic exploitation

• Commercial Revolution (1500-1800)/ price revolution

  • Causes

    • Roots were in the Middle Ages (e.g. Hanseatic League, a commercial and defensive confederation along the coast of northern Germany)

    • Population growth recovered to its pre=leage level: 70 million in 1500: and 90 million in 1600; thus, more consumers existed (food and supply-demand increase) (inflation)

    • The price revolution long slow upward trend in prices

      • This resulted from increased food prices, increased volume of money, and the influx of gold and silver from the New World

      • Increased prices resulted in an increase in the supply of goods and an accumulation of capital among large landowners who oversaw the commercialization of agriculture (capitalism because they invested the extra money they had) 

      • States and emerging empires sought to increase their economic power.  (JOINT-STOCK)

      • Rise in capitalism (laissez-faire - government should not intervene in business: entrepreneurs invested money in their own businesses or other ventures 

        • The middle class (bourgeoisie) led the way 

• Features

  • banking 

    • The fuggers in Germany and the Medicis in italy were among the leading bankers in Europe

      • They funded countless economic activities

    • Antwerp in Flanders became the banking and commercial center of Europe in the sixteenth century

    • Amsterdam became the financial center in the 17th century after the successful Dutch revolt against Spain

  • The Hanseatic League evolved from within the German states in the Middle Ages to eventually controlling trade in much of northern Europe well into the 16th century 

    • The league was a mercantile association of numerous cities and towns

  • Chartered companies (states provided monopolies in certain areas like British East India Co and the Dutch East India Co 

    • These chartered companies became in effect, a state within a state with large fleets of ships and military power

  • Joint stock companies: investors pooled resources for a common purpose (forerunner of the modern corporation)

    • This was an early prime example of capitalism

  • Stock markets emerged the bourse in antwerp

    • Investors financed a company by purchasing shares of stock; was the value for the company grew

  • First enclosure movement in England: wealthy landowners enclosed their lands to improve sheep herding and this the supply of wool for the production of textiles

  • The “putting out” industry emerged in the countryside for the production of cloth 

    • Some farmers, displaced by enclosures, supplemented their income by producing textiles at home

  • New industries: cloth production, mining, printing, book trade, shipbuilding, cannons and muskets

  • New consumer goods: sugar ( most important), rice, and tea

    • Sugar production resulted in an enormous slave trade in the Atlantic

  • Mercantilism developed in the 17th century

    • Goal: nations sought a self-sufficient economy

    • Strategy: create a favorable balance of trade where one country exports far more than it imported

    • Favorable balance of trade key term

    • “Bullionism”: a country should acquire as much gold and silver as possible- represents a countries wealth

      • A favorable balance of trade was necessary to keep a country’s supply of gold from flowing to a competing country

• Significance: 

  • The slow transition from a European society that was almost completely rural and isolated, to a society that was more developed with the emergence of twins

    • Many serfs mostly in Western Europe improved their social position as a result

    • Migration to twins and cities led to crime poverty unemployment, and sanitation problems

    • Town elites such as bankers merchants and craft guilds struggled to govern effectively and experienced inadequate resources

  • The emergence of more powerful nation states occurred

    • Wealth was increasingly 

  • The Price revolution

    • Prices during the 16th century rose gradually

    • The rising population of europe increased demand for goods therbty yincreasing prices

    • The influx of gold and silver from the New World was one of the major factors (but not the major factor)

    • Inflation stimulated production as producers could get more money for their goods

• The slave trade

  • Portugal first introduced slavery in Brazil to farm the sugar plantations

  • After 1621, the Dutch West India Co transported thousands of slaves to the New World

  • Englsands Royal African co entered the slave trade in the late 17th century

    • This facilitated a huge influx of African slaves into the Caribbean and North America

  • By 1800 Africans accounted for about 60% of brazils population and about 20% of the US population

  • An estimated 50 million Africans died or became slaves during the 17th centruy and 18th

    • The horrific journey for slaves across the Atlantic from West Africa to the New World became known as the Middle Passage

  • Some African slaves went to Europe (eg Portugal)

    • Blacks were seen as exotic and highly prized in certain areas. 

    • An American form of slavery existed

• The triangular trade

  • Britain shipped textiles, rum, and manufactured goods to africa

  • Salves were transported to the West Indies and North America

  • Goods from the West Indies and North America, such as sugar, tobacco, lumber, and cotton goods, were shipped to Britain

• The Colombian Exchange

  • The exchange of goods shifted the center of economic power in Europe from the Mediterranean to the atnlantic states and brought the latter into an expanding world economy

  • Both euro[e and teh new world were transformed as a result of the age of exploration and the exchanges that occurred between the two 

  • For europeans the colombian exchange resulted in an improved diet, increased wealth, and the resie of global empires

  • For the american indians, the results were largely catastrophic

    • Michel de Montaigne in the 1580s contrasts the greed and violence of the Europeans  with the relatively simple and harmonious american indians

• Disease

  • Smallpox

  • syphilis

What Mrs. Minasyan said:

Be familiar with names of explorers

• Bartholemew de las casas : father accompanied columbus on his 2nd voyage 

  • Publicly criticized the ruthlessness with which Columbus and his successors treated the american indians

• Known to have created an idea of black legend with opposed Catholics. Spain accused of using Christianity ostensibly for killing countless natives. 

  • done to make people convert to Protestantism

CHART OF THE PRICE REOVLUTion CONSUMER PRICES N EUROPEAN CITIES IN GRAMS OF SILVER (1300-1600

Know this for mcq

https://www.google.com/search?sca_esv=36576c73e9ed5c8a&sca_upv=1&rlz=1C5CHFA_enUS1099US1099&sxsrf=ADLYWIJnlWnG0nrlz_m72Ws5lo_iyeitlw:1726520870198&q=CHART+OF+THE+PRICE+REVOLUTion+CONSUMER+PRICES+N+EUROPEAN+CITIES+IN+GRAMS+OF+SILVER+(1300-1600&udm=2&fbs=AEQNm0Aa4sjWe7Rqy32pFwRj0UkWd8nbOJfsBGGB5IQQO6L3J03RPjGV0MznOJ6Likin94p8FXzmjNmbQ-4rMNC3Kdp_TJcJ7Ub8ch058XQwmQpI6CzOYQoYxc7ZM5hCGCw3zwsQCJRdGNGC1UFWCEnv8gCb_8Rk47HQqHelsfx3SfrRuBkuVGIprIj8NvfAyvWxLJ7X4hT53BjD1MqmfUuRqiywrd_fuA&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwijkKm5r8iIAxXUBEQIHesENbUQtKgLegQIEBAB&biw=1728&bih=959&dpr=2#vhid=OONzIuV8C4ukNM&vssid=mosaic

1. treatOverview of the Reformation

   1. The development of Western civilization influenced the beginning of modern Europe.

   2. Protestantism adopted by states in Northern Europe

   3. Religious enthusiasm rekindled

   4. Catholic counter-reformation responded to the protestant challenge with some success.

   5. Destroyed the religious unity of Western Europe and initiated a period of devastating religious wars in the 16th and 17th century

2. Protestant reformation 

   1. Causes of the Reformation   

      1. The crises of the 14th and 15th centuries hurt the prestige of the clergy

         1. Babylonian captivity, 14th century

         2. Great schism

         3. The Conciliar movement sought to reform the church and give a church council more power than the pope.

      2. Corruption in the catholic church

         1. Simony: sale of church offices 

            1. E.G., in 1487, the pope sold 24 offices

            2. Reformers were outraged that unqualified people would become bishops or cardinals.

         2. Pluralism: an official holding more than one office at a time. More than 1 office

         3. Absenteeism: an official not participating in benefits but receiving payment and privileges. Being absent, but receiving

         4. Sale of indulgences: people paying money to the Church to absolve/get rid of their sins or the sins of their loved ones

         5. Nepotism: favoring family members in the appointment of Church offices

            1. Two popes (Leo X and Clement VII were sons of Florentine Medici rulers

            2. Pope Paul III made two of his grandsons cardinals

         6. The moral decline of the papacy

            1. Pope Alexander VI had numerous affairs and children out of wedlock(being married out of marriage)

            2. 20% of all priests in the Diocese of Trent kept concubines during the early 16th century

         7. Clerical ignorance: priests were virtually illiterate (most)

            1. Some abused their power, such as trading sexual favors

      3. Critics of the church emphasized a personal relationship with god as the primary

         1. John Wyclif(1329-1384) England 

            1. Stated that the bible was the sole authority

               1. Foreshadowed Martin Luther's views in the early 16th century

            2. Stressed personal communion with god

            3. Diminished the importance of sacraments

            4. Translated the bible into English

            5. His followers (Lollards) continued his ideas into the 16th century

         2. John Hus (1369-1415) Czech

            1. Similar ideas to Wyclif

            2. A religious leader in Bohemia who led a nationalist movement there

            3. He was burned at the stake by the church for his heretical views

            4. Hussites were followers of Hus who staged large rebellions in the 14th century

         3. Brethren of the Common Life

            1. Encouraged Christians to live simply and make religion a personal experience

         4. Erasmus: in praise of folly

            1. criticized the corruption in the church and the hypocrisy of the clergy

            2. A contemporary remarked that Erasmus laid the egg that Luther hatched

         5. Christian humanism effect

            1. Criticized the church and questioned the validity of the Latin Vulgate

            2. A de-emphasis on religion marked the Italian Renaissance with an emphasis on secularism and individualism among high church leaders

               1. Drew significant criticism

            3. Ulrich Zwingli trained as a humanist and preacher

3. Lutheran Reformation

   1. Martin Luther (1483-1546)

      1. He was a reform-minded Augustinian monk who taught at the University of Wittenberg in Saxony.

      2. Quit to be a lawyer and went to god

   2. Johan Wetzel was encouraged by Pope Leo X to sell indulgences

      1. Indulgences were payments to reduce a personal punishment in purgatory or perhaps the pain of a loved one who had already died

      2. Tetzel: “As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, a soul from purgatory springs.” 

      3. ASK AIDEN

   3. Ninety-five Theses (1517)

      1. Luther criticized the selling of indulgences but went further than others before him by questioning the scriptural authority of the Pope to grant indulgences.

      2. The printing press facilitated the spread of Luther's work with astonishing speed.

      3. Luther challenged church authority.

         1. Initially, the pope viewed the issue as an insignificant disagreement between Augustinian and Dominican monks.

            1. Theological debates among clergy members were not unprecedented

         2. In 1518, Luther defied the Pope by refusing to stop his crusade

         3. In 1518, Luther defied the Pope by refusing to stop his crusade

            1. He was protected by elector Frederick III, “the wise” of Saxony

            2. At this point, Luther did not seek to create a new church but rather to reform the catholic church; he pointed out the problems, but as a result, he split the church

            3. Luther took part in a debate with Johann Eck, one of the great catholic theologians

               1. Luther denied the infallibility of the pope and the infallibility of a general council

               2. Luther claimed the church had erred when it executed John Hus for heresy. Called the pope a murderer, sinner, etc

               3. This was the point of no return for Luther

               4. In 1520, Luther published his theology of reform in 3 separate works

                  1. Salvation through faith alone

                     1. He rejected “good works” as the means to salvation but believed that “good works” followed faith.

                  2. The Bible was the sole authority (as was the pope/church). 

                  3. Only two sacraments - baptism and communion were valid

                     1. Rejected transubstantiation (the wine and bread in the Eucharist transform into the actual blood and body of Christ)

                     2. Advocated consubstantiation (the “real presence” of god in the bread and wine

                  4. The church consisted of a “priesthood of all believers,” not a hierarchical structure. There is no difference between you and the priest, bishop, pope, etc. You are all people/believers

                     1. Christians were not subject to the pope’s interpretation of the Bible

                     2. The Bible contained all that was needed for a person to lead a Christian life- a church hierarchy of bishops and priests, therefore, was unnecessary : Promoted education and challenged their authority and nobility

                  5. He again criticized the sale of indulgences and simony

                  6. He encourages German princes to reform the church in their states

                  7. Luther was excommunicated by Pope Leo X in 1520

                     1. Luther threw the papal bull that excommunicated him into the fire

                     2. Diet of Worms (1521)

                        1. Tribunal of the HRE with power to outlaw and sentence execution through stake-burning.

                        2. Charles V demanded Luther recant his writings (to take back)

                        3. Luther refused - “Here I stand. I cannot do otherwise.”

                        4. Edict of worms: Luther was outlawed as a heretic by the HRE

                        5. Luther was kidnapped by agents of Frederick III and taken to his castle, where he was protected 

                        6. In 1523, Luther translated the bible into the vernacular, which influenced the development of the modern German language

                        7. Served to democratize religion as nay literate Germans now

      4. Confessions of Augsburg

         1. Written by Luther's friend Philip Melanchthon

         2. It was an attempted compromise statement of religious faith to unite Lutheran and catholic princes of the HRE.

            1. Rejected by catholic princes

         3. This became the traditional statement of the Lutheran church 

            1. Salvation through faith alone

            2. The Bible is the sole authority

            3. “Priesthood of all believers”

      5. The political battle over Lutheranism in Germany

         1. Spread of Lutheranism

            1. Many German states in the north switched to Lutheranism

               1. Many German princes were politically motivated: they could now escape the authority of the catholic church and confiscate church lands for the state's benefit

               2. The southern part of Germany largely remained catholic

            2. Denmark and Sweden became Lutheran states as well

      6. Charles V fought to stop Lutheranism but failed because he was president of Spain. 

         1. Charles Wawa was preoccupied with the Turkish threat in Hungary and his dynastic struggle with Francis I of France.

         2. Focused on three separate wars 

         3. Thus, he could not concentrate his military solely on Germany at the time

   4. German Peasants Revolts

      1. Twelve Articles, 1525: German peasants demanded an end to serfdom levies and other practices of feudalism that oppressed the peasantry (e.g., hunting rights)

      2. Lutheranism moved peasants 

         1. Luther advocated religious reform (since God's realm was not worldly). He believed people should obey their political authorities

         2. Luther may have sympathized with some of the complaints of the peasants, but he was disgusted with the violence of the peasant movement

            1. Admonished German princes to stamp out the revolt violently

         3. 100,000 peasants died during the uprising

            1. Both Catholic and Lutheran forces took part in squashing the revolt

      3. Northern Germany

         1. League of Schmalkalden 

            1. It was formed by newly protestant (Lutheran) princes to defend themselves against Charles V's drive to re-catholicize Germany

            2. Francis I of France allied with the league (despite being catholic) between 1535-1544

               1. France tried to keep Germany divided (although France was divided)

            3. This conflict played an essential role in the long-term political fragmentation of Germany

      4. Peace of Augsburg 

         1. The peace temporarily ended the struggle in Germany over Lutheranism

         2. Provision:

            1. Prince in Germany could choose either Protestantism or catholicism

               1. Cuisus Regio eius religio - “whose the region, his the religion)

            2. Protestants living in Catholic states were allowed to move to Protestant states; the same was true of Catholics residing there.

         3. It resulted in the permanent religious division in Germany

            1. Essentially stopped German reunification

   5. Spread of Protestantism

      1. Anabaptists (formed in Zurich), 1525 

         1. Characteristics 

            1. Voluntary association of believers with no connection or allegiance to any states

               1. They rejected secular agreements and refused to take civil oaths, pay taxes, hold public office, or serve in the military.

            2. They opposed childhood baptism as only adults, they believed, could decide to commit to Christ.

            3. As millenarians, they believed the end of the world was near 

            4. They rejected the Trinity (Father, Son, and holy spirit)

            5. Some historians see the anabaptists as the “left-wing” of the protestant reformation 

         2. In 1532, a radical group of revolutionary Anabaptists took control of the northwestern German city of Münster 

            1. Led by John of Leyden

            2. Polygamy was instituted. John had 16 wives

            3. Women also served as leaders of the movement

            4. All books except the bible were burned in the city

            5. Began killings of some Lutherans and Catholics

            6. The tragedy of münster (1534) combined armies of protestant 

         3. Long-term impact of the Anabaptists

            1. Mennonites, founded by Dutch leader Menno Simmons, were descendants of the Anabaptists.

               1. They emphasized pacifism

            2. Quakers in England shared similar beliefs; thousands came to America, where they founded and controlled three areas: New Jersey, Delaware, and Pennsylvania.

            3. Unitarians (who reject the trinity) also were influenced by the Anabaptists.

         4. Luthers did not believe in the legitimacy of any other faith except mainstream Protestantism.

      2. Ulrich Zwingli swiss reformer

         1. He was a student of humanism who preached from Erasmus's edition of the New Greek Testament.

            1. Adopted  ASK AIDEN

         2. In contrast, Luther saw the Eucharist as only symbolic, and Luther's view of the real presence was too catholic in its foundation.

            1. This became the first dispute among protestants dealing with issues of doctrine.

         3. Colloquy of Marburg Zwingli officially split with Luther over the issue of the eucharist (1529)

         4. The augsburg Confession (1530) excluded non-lutheran reformers such as zwingli 

      3. Calvinism (the most significant of the new protestant sects)

         1. John Calvin 

            1. He was a Frenchman who was influenced by humanism

         2. Wrote the institutes of the Christian religion 

            1. Foundational work for Calvinism

            2. Predestination: since god is all-knowing, he already knows who is destined for heaven or hell

               1. Thus, “good works” are not sufficient for salvation, and there is no free will since God has already made his decision.

               2. Yet good works are a sign that one has been chosen for salvation

               3. God reveals if one has been chosen for salvation through a conversion experience - any time in their life

         3. The elect were church members who had had their conversion experience and should become model Christians, “visible saints.”

            1. Calvin established a theocracy in Geneva by 1540

            2. Became the new center of the reformation in Europe

               1. Geneva became home to protestant exiles from England, Scotland, and France who later returned to their countries with Calvinist ideas

            3. Like Zwingli in Zurich, Calvin believed church and city should combine to enforce (ASK AIDEN)

            4. Calvinism was the most militant and uncompromising of all protestant sects

               1. The consistory: a judiciary made up of lay elders had the power to impose harsh penalties for those who disobeyed god's law

      4. Michael Servetus, a unitarian humanist from Spain, was burned at the stake 

      5. Protestant work ethic: Calvinists later stressed the importance of hard work and accompanying financial success as a sign that god was pleased

      6. Spread of Calvinism: more significant impact on future generations than Lutheranism

         1. Scotland Presbyterianism

         2. Established in 1560 by John Knox

         3. Presbyters governed the church

         4. It became the dominant religion in Scotland

      7. Huguenots - French Calvinists who were brutally suppressed in France

         1. They were solid among the nobility, although Calvinism saw converts from every social class

      8. Dutch Reformed Church developed in the United Provinces of the Netherlands

         1. The rise of Calvinism in the Netherlands as the dominant religion set the stage for a revolt against the Inquisition of King Philip II of Spain

         2. The Netherlands declared its independence in 1581 (although it would not be officially recognized by all European powers until 1648) 

      9. Puritans in England

         1. Pressured Elizabeth I for more reforms but were largely kept at bay

         2. They later established colonies in America in a region that came to be known as New England (Massachusetts and Connecticut)

         3. They were victorious in the English Civil War (1642-49)

      10. Calvinism did not spread to Ireland, Spain, and Italy, as they remained heavily catholic

4. The English Reformation 

   1. Early English reformers

      1. John Wycliffe's followers, the Lollards, still existed

      2. William Tyndale, a humanist, translated the bible into English ( you can only have the Bible in Latin, so it cost him his life because he had no permission)

         1. It became the basis for the King James Version (early 1600s)

         2. Tyndale was a hundred down and executed in 1536 after thousands of English Bibles had made their way into England (only Latin or Greek was allowed)

         3. Had also refused to recognize Henry VIII's leadership of the Anglican church

      3. Henry VIII 

         1. He was the second of the Tudor dynasty

         2. He had earlier been a conservative catholic who supported (Ask Aiden)

         3. The pope awarded him with the title of Defender of the Faith

         4. He sought an annulment from his wife, Catharine of Aragon, because she couldn't bear a son

         5. A son was needed to preserve the strength of the Tudor dynasty 

            1. Mary was betrothed to the dauphin of France. If she had inherited the throne from Henry, England would have become subject to French control. The French would take over England

         6. He thought god was punishing him for marrying his brother's widow (a passage referenced in the book of Leviticus in the bible)

            1. He thought it was the pope's fault

         7. Church of England  (Anglican church)

            1. Pope Clement VII could not grant a papal dispensation after 1527 for an annulment.

               1. The army of HRE Charles V had just sacked Rome. 

               2. Thomas Cranmer replaced Wolsey and convinced Henry to break away from the catholic church so he could marry Anne Boleyn. 

               3. Henry and Anne secretly married. 

               4. Henry broke away from the catholic church and formed the church of England

                  1. The act of supremacy (1534) made the king the official head of the Church of England 

                  2. Catholic lands were about 25% of all land in England, and it was confiscated 

                     1. This doubled royal revenues, which helped build up the military

                     2. Nobles, especially in the south, purchased large tracts of land. Some enclosures resulted

                     3. Act of succession: all of the king's subjects had to take an oath of loyalty to the king as head of the Anglican church

                        1. Henry ordered the execution of Thomas More for refusing to take the oath

                     4. In 1526, widespread opposition in the north to Henry's reformation led to the Pilgrimage of Grace, a massive multi-class rebellion largest in English history

                     5. Henry had six wives

            2. In 1659, the Statue of the Six articles

               1. Despite its independence from Rome, the Anglican church maintained most of the catholic doctrines (the seven sacraments, celibacy for the clergy, and transubstantiation).

            3. Edward VI

               1. At age 10, when he became king, strong protestants ruled on his behalf (Henry Son) 

               2. England adopted Calvinism during his reign

                  1. New practices

                  2. Clergy could marry

                  3. Iconic images removed from churches

                  4. Communion by the laity/clergy people was expanded

               3. New Doctrines

                  1. Salvation by faith alone

                  2. Denial of transubstantiation

                  3. Only two sacraments, baptism, and communion

               4. Edwards's premature death in 1553 led to a religious struggle among protestants and Catholics. 

            4. Mary Tudor tried unsuccessfully to reimpose Catholicism 

               1. Rescinded henrys and Edwards religious legislation

               2. Marian exiles; protestants fled to England fearing persecution

               3. Three hundred people were executed, including bishops and archbishop Cranmer. Her opponents called her “Bloody Mary.”

            5. Elizabeth I 

               1. Daughter of Henry and Anne Boleyn

                  1. Catholics saw her as an illegitimate child and thus rejected her legitimacy regarding the throne.

                  2. She effectively oversaw the development of Protestantism in England

                     1. Politique: She was a practical politician who carefully navigated a middle ground between Anglicanism and Protestantism; she was the middle ground between both

                     2. Puritans (Calvinists) sought to reform the church of England

                     3. Elizabethan Settlement: Elizabeth and parliament required conformity to the church of England, but people were allowed to worship protestantism and catholicism privately

                  3. The thirty-nine articles defined the creed of the Anglican church

                     1. Followed protestant doctrine but was vague enough to accommodate most of the English except the Puritans

                  4. Some Catholics unsuccessfully plotted assassination attempts and invasions against Elizabeth

                     1. Sought to place Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots, on the throne 

                     2. To relieve the threat, Elizabeth agreed to execute Mary 

5. Catholic Reformation (Counter-Reformation)

   1. Catholic Reformation and Reformation were not mutually exclusive 

   2. Successful in stemming the tide of Protestantism ( ASK AIDEN)

      1. Pope Paul III was the most critical pope in reforming the church and challenging Protestantism 

      2. Rather than instituting new doctrines, he sought to improve the church

   3. Council of Trent (3 sessions during 1545-1563) established catholic dogma for the next four centuries

      1. Equal validity of scriptures, church traditions, and writings of church fathers

      2. Salvation through both “good works” and faith

      3. All seven sacraments were valid; transubstantiation was reaffirmed

      4. Monasticism, celibacy of the clergy, and purgatory were reaffirmed

      5. It approved the index of forbidden books 

         1. Books supporting Protestantism or overly critical of the church (Erasmus) were banned from catholic countries.

         2. Anyone possessing these books would be punished. Possession of books=punishment

      6. Church reforms: abuses in the sale of indulgences were curtailed (stopped), the sale of church offices curtailed, bishops were given greater control over clergy, and seminaries were established (ASK AIDEN)

   4. New religious orders 

      1. Jesuits (society of Jesus) founded in 1540

         1. Ignatius Loyola organized Jesuits in military fashion 

         2. Spiritual exercises Loyola's guidebook to train Jesuits

         3. Three goals:

            1. Reform the church through education 

            2. Spread the gospel to pagan peoples 

            3. Fight Protestantism

         4. Beginning in 1542, the Jesuits oversaw both the Spanish and Roman inquisitions (sacred congregation of the holy office) 

            1. Spain persecuted Moriscos Christian moors and Christian Jews who were suspected of backsliding to their original faiths.

            2. Italy Pope Paul IV issued a papal bull accusing Jews of killing Christ and ordering that Jews be placed in ghettos in the papal states.

            3. Persecution of Jews in Europe increased.

         5. The catholic reformation thus brought southern Germany and Eastern Europe back to catholicism.

            1.  The index of forbidden books was strongly enforced

            2. Heresy was effectively ended in the papal states; the rest of Italy was not affected significantly

         6. Jesuit schools became among the finest in all of Europe

      2. Ursuline order of nuns sought to combat heresy through Christian education 

6. Art of the Catholic Reformation

   1. Mannerism developed in Spain 

      1. Characteristics

         1. Reaction against the Renaissance ideals of balance, symmetry, simplicity, and realistic use of color it is more distorted

            1. High Renaissance had taken art to perfection; there was little that could be done to improve it; thus, mannerists rebelled against it

         2. Works often used unnatural acidic colors while shapes were elongated or otherwise exaggerated. It looked weirder

      2. El Greco (1541-1614)

         1. Greek artist who did most of his greatest work in Spain

         2. He was perhaps the greatest mannerist

         3. Burial of count orgaz and toledo are two important examples of his work

         4. Mannerism reflected baroque ideals and became associated with the catholic reformation in the late 16th century

      3. Baroque art as a part of the catholic reformation 

         1. Reformation countries to teach in a concrete and emotional way and demonstrate the glory and power of the catholic church

            1. Encouraged by the papacy and the jesuits

            2. Became prominent in France, Flanders, Austria, southern Germany and Poland

         2. Spread later to protestant countries such as the netherlands and northern germany and england

         3. Sought to overwhelm the viewer: emphasized grandeur, emotion, movement, spaciousness and unity surrounding a certain theme

         4. Architecture and sculpitre

            1. Baroque architecture reflected the image and power of absolute monarchs and the catholic church

            2. Gianlorenzo Bernini personified baroque architecture and sculpture

               1. The colonnade for piazza in front of st peters basilica in Rome was his greatest achievement 

               2. He sculpted the incredible St peters Baldachin, the canopy over the high alter of St Peter Basilica

               3. His altarpiece sculpture The Ecstasy of St. Teresa evokes tremendous emotion 

         5. Baroque painting

            1. Characteristics

               1. Stressed broad areas of light and shadow rather than on linear arrangements of the high renaissance

               2. Color appealed to the senses and was more true to nature

               3. Darker is more baroque

               4. Not concerned with clarity of detail as with overall dynamic effect

               5. Designed to give a spontaneous personal experience

            2. Caravaggio Italian

               1. Perhaps the first important painter of the Baroque era

               2. Depicted highly emotional scenes

               3. Used sharp contrasts of light and dark to create drama (tenebrism)

               4. Some criticized him for using ordinary people as models for his depictions of biblical scenes

            3. Peter paul rubens Flemish painter

               1. Worked for the Habsburg court in Brussels the capital of Spanish Netherlands (fatter girls in his paintings)

               2. Emphasized color and sensuality animated figures and melodramatic contrasts monumental size

               3. Nearly half of his works dealth with christian subjects

               4. Known for his sensual nudes as roman goddesses, water nymphs, and saints nad angels

            4. Diego Velazquez

               1. Perhaps the greatest court painter of the era

               2. Numerous portraits of the Spanish court 

            5. Artemesia Gentileschi

               1. She was perhaps the first female artist to gain recognition in the post-renaissance era 

               2. She was the first woman to paint historical and religious scenes (her series of “Judith” Paintings). (revenge, traitors,  killing men)

               3. Female artists at this time were largely consigned to portrait painting and imitative poses

      4. Results of the Reformation 

         1. The unity of Western Christianity was shattered

            1. North Europe (Scandinavia, England, much of germany, parts of france, Switzerland, and Scotland) adopted Protestantism

            2. Religious enthusiasts were rekindled by similar enthusiasm not seen since far back into the middle ages

            3. Abuses in the RCC remedied: simony, pluralism, immoral or badly educated clergy were considerable remedied by the 17th century

            4. Religious wars broke out in Europe for well over a century

      5. Impact of the reformation on women

         1. Protestant women

            1. Luther believed that a w omen’s occupation was in the home

            2. Clavin believed in the subjugation of women to preserve moral order

            3. Protestant churches had greater official control over marriage than did the catholic church

               1. Suppressed common law marriages (which were common in catholic countries)

               2. Catholic governments followed the protestant example

            4. Marriage became more companionate, emphasizing the love relationship between man and wife

               1. Luterha nd his wife katherina von bora, shared this vew

               2. Luther believed sex was an act to be enjoyed by a husband and wife; not just an act of procreatiojn

            5. An increased emphasis on teaching people to read the bible resulted in women becoming more education in protesantism and more schools for girls were set up.

               1. Increased literally led to the rise of a print culture

            6. Protestant women however lost opportunities in church service that many catholic women pursued (eg becoming nuns)

            7. Women gradually lost rights to manage their own property or to make legal transactions in their own name

         2. Catholic Women

            1. Women continued to enjoy opportunities in the rhcuh through religious orders

            2. Angela Merici

               1. Founded the ursuline order of nuns in the 1530s to provide exucation and religious training

               2. Sought to combat heresy through christian education

               3. The ursulines spread to france and the new world

            3. Teresa de avila

               1. Major spanish leader of the reform movements for monasteries and convents

               2. Preacehd taht people can connect to god through contemplation and preaching

            4. Wealthy women during the renaissance era

               1. Important rensassiacne novelwomen at court in educaiton and culture

                  1. Christine de pisan 

                     1. Chronicled the accomplishements og reat woemn

                     2. Renasssiacne womans survival manual

                     3. Europes first feminist

                  2. Isabella D’Este “first lady” of the renaissance

                     1. Sen an example for women to break away from their traditiojnal role as mere oranemnts to ehir hubsands

                     2. Ruled italian city state of mantua after her husband died

            5. Marriage and family

               1. The status and lifestyle fo peasant and working-class women changed little compared to the middle ages

               2. Marriage

                  1. European family pattern

                     1. Nuclear family: poor people tended to be unable to support extended family

                     2. wealthier people and some landowner (AIDEN)

               3. Marriage was based on economic considerations, not love (all about money)

                  1. Parents played a large role when property was involved

                  2. Dowries were extremely important in wealthy families; also important in common families

                  3. Women tended to play a more singiciant role in the economy in northern europe

               4. Average age for women less than 20 for men it was mid 20s

                  1. Class issues the rich tend to marry earlier than middle classes and the poor tend to marry earlier too or not to marry at all

                  2. In Italy, the age gap between husbands and wives in the middle class was much larger than in northern Europe

                  3. Increased infanticide and abandonment (among the poor) occurred

                     1. Increase of foundling hospitals (⅔ of abandoned babies were girls) resulted

                     2. There was a low rate of illegitimate births

                     3. Divorce was available in certain areas but was still limited. Catholics are big on divorce because it was a sacrament. More allowed for protestants

                        1. Largely due to the cmdoest increase in divorce in reformation countresi

                        2. Rape was not considered a crime

                  4. Joan Kelly 

                     1. Assrted that middle class (bourgeois) women (AIDEN)

            6. Important Female rulers

               1. Caterina sforza in milan

               2. Isabella 1 unified spain along with her husband ferdinand

               3. Mary tudor ruled England

               4. Elizabeth 1 ruled England

               5. Catherine de Medicis ruled france a regent 

      6. Witch Hunts

         1. 70k - 100l people were killed between 1400 and 17–

         2. Causes

            1. Popular belief in magic

               1. Cunning folk had been common in European villages for centuries: played a positive role in helping villagers deal with tragedies such as plagues, famines, physical disabilities, etc

            2. Catholic church claimed that the powers came from either god or the devil 

               1. Used with chubts to gain control over village life in rural areas

            3. Women were seen as weather vessels and prone to temptation constituted 80% of victims

            4. Religious wars and divisions created a panic environment

         3. End of witch hunts

            1. Scientific revolution of the 16th and 17th century 

      7. Religious life and popular culture

         1. Local churches and authorities continued to enforce communal normas (AIDEN)

            1. Charivari was used as a means of public humiliations

               1. Those who committed adultery or beat their spouse might be paraded around their village riding backwards on a donkey while holding up the donkeys tail 

            2. Popular culture leisure activities and rituals reflected the persistence of olk ideas reinforced and sometimes challenged communal ties nad normas

               1. Blood sports such as bullbaiting and cockfighting were popular

               2. Carnival was popular in catholic otunereis whereby excess partying preceded Lent (a 40-day period of fasting and penitence before easter)

7. From 1560 to 1648 wars would be fought largely over religious issues

   1. Spain sought to squash Protestantism in Western Europe and the spread of Islam in the Mediterranean 

   2. French Catholics sought to squash the Huguenots

   3. The Holy Roman Empire sought to reimpose catholicism in Germany 

   4. The Calvinist Netherlands sought to break away from spanish rule

   5. A civil war occurred in England between Puritans and Anglicans

   6. Know these wars

      1. The dutch revolt

      2. Spanish armadas attack on England

      3. French wars of religion effects of it are important

      4. Thirty years war

      5. English civil war

8. Spanish catholic crusade

   1. Philip II a Habsburg ruler like his father Charles V he fanatically sought to reimpose catholicism in Europe

      1. Under philip Spain became the dominant country in Europe the golden age of Spain

      2. Escorial palace (grill the protestants)

      3. Spain waged a war against the turks in the Mediterranean to seucreithe region for christian merchants

         1. Battle of Lepanto 1571 spain defeated the Turkish navy off the coast of Greece

         2. Spain's religious fervor in its battle with the turls was reminiscent of the earlier christian crusades

9. The Dutch Revolt

   1. William of Orange led 17 provinces in the netherlands and Flanders against the Spanish Inquisition of Philip II 

      1. Sought to crush the rise of Calvinism in the Netherlands. 

      2. The dutch republic became the financial center of europe

   2. United Provinces of the Netherlands *formed in 1581) dutch republic

      1. Received aid from England under Elizabeth I 

      2. Major blow to philips goal oif maintaining catholicism throughout his empire

      3. The spanish Netherlands 

10. Spanish Armada (1588)

    1. Spain's attempt to invade England ended 

    2. Much of Spain's navy lay in ruins due to a raging storm in the English channel as well as the effectiveness of England's smaller but better armed navy

11. French Wars of Religion (9 wars from 1562 to 1589)

    1. After hte death of henry II in 1559 a power struggle bewteen three noble families for the Crown ensued

       1. The throne remind in the fragile control of the catholic valois dynasty

       2. Three french kings from 59-89 wre dominated by their mother, Catherine de Medici who as regent fight to maintain catholic control in france

    2. Brtween 40-50% of nobles became calvinists (hugenots) many were bourbons

       1. Many nobles ostensibly convreted for religious reasons byt sought independence from the crown

       2. A resurgence of feudal sdisorder in france resulted

       3. The bourbons were next in line to inherit the throne

    3. The ultra Catholic Guise family also competed for the throne strongly anti boururbon

    4. Fighting began in 1562 between catholics and calvinistsi

       1. Atrocities occurred

    5. ST Bartholemews Day massacre

       1. The marriage of margaret of valois to the bourbon huguenothenry of navarre was intended to reconcile catholics and hguenots

       2. Rioting occurred when the elader of the catholic rsitrocracy henry of guise, had a leaeder of the huguenot party mrudered the night before the wedding

       3. Catherine de medicis ordered the message of calvinists in response

       4. The massacre initiated the War of the Three Henrys: a civil war between the Valois,  (AIDEN)

    6. Henry IV first borubon king 

       1. One of the most important kings in french history

       2. His rise to power ended the french civil wars and placed France on a gradual course towards absolutism

       3. Henry was a politique like Elizabeth I 

          1. Sought practical political solutions rather than ideological ones like Philip II, he was somewhat Machiavellian in nature

          2. He converted to Catholicism to gain the loyalty of paris (he allegedly stated “ paris is worth a mass”)

          3. Privately remained a calvinist

          4. Edict of nantes, Henry granted a degree of religious toleration to huguenots and ushered in an era or religious pluralism

             1. Permitted huguentots the right to worship privately

                1. Public worship not allowed

                2. Huguentos were not allowed to worship at all in Paaris and other staunchly catholic cities

             2. Gave huguenots access to universities, to public office, and the right to maintain some 200 fortified towns in western and southwestern france for self-protection (more like a truce rather than a recognition of religious toleration)

    7. Thirty Years War most important war of the 17th century

       1. Cause: Failure of peace of ausburg (1555)

          1. Agreement had viven germany princes the righ to choose either catholicism or lutehranism as the official region in their states ithin the HRE

          2. The truce in germany lasted for 60 yeras until factionalism in the HRE precipitated a cataclysmic war

       2. 4 phases of the war

          1. Bohemian phase (1618-1625)

          2. “Defensestration of Prague” triggered the war in Bohemia

             1. HRE emperor placed sever restricitons on Preotestantism in its empire

             2. Two HRE officials were thrown out a window and fell 70 feet (they did not die because they were allegedely saved by a large pile of manure)

             3. Emperor then sought to annhiliate the alvinist nobility in Bohemia

          3. Protestant forces were eventually defeated and protestantism was eliminated in Bohemia

          4. Danish Phase (1625-29) represents the height of Catholic power during the war

             1. Albrecht Von Wallenstein (83-1634) mercenary general paid by the emperor to fight for the HRE

             2. Edict of restitution the emperor declared all church territories secularized since 1552 to be restored to the catholic church

          5. Swedsih Phase (1629-35)

             1. Protestants liberated territory lost during hte Danish Phase

             2. Gustabus Adolphus king of sweden led an army that pushed catholic forces all thw eay back to bohemia

                1. Ended habsburg hopes (AIDEN)

                2. In response the emperor reluctantly annulled the edict of restitution

                3. Swedish army was defeated by the HRE France now feard a resurgence of Catholicism in the HRE (habsburg dynast was rivals with france they wanted a balance of power) strong HRE equals weaker france

          6. French Phase (1635-1648)

             1. Cardinal Reichelieu allied with protestant forces ot defeat the HRE

                1. Allied with Holland, Sweden, Finland, and German mercenaries

             2. Richelieu's policies reflected catholic France paramount diplomatic concerns as political not religious thus he can be seen as a politique

                1. Had the habsburgs won in Germany, France would have been confronted with a more powerful German state on its eastern border

             3. Treaty of Westphalia 

                1. Renewed the peace of augsburg but added calvinism as a politically accepted faigth

                   1. In effect, it ended the catholic reformation in Germany

                   2. –Guaranteed that germany couple ramen=in divided politically and religiously for ecnturies

                   3. The dissolitiojn of HRE was now confirmed

                   4. –The netherlands and switzerland gained their indpednence from spanish rule 

                   5. –300+ germany states became sovereign 

                   6. –The pope was denied the right to intervene in HRE affairs

                2. France, sweden anad brandenburg (Prussia) received various territories and gained interantianal stature

                3. The two hasbburb branches were weakened

                   1. The spanish habsburgs saw their empire decline dramatically thereafter

                   2. The austrian habsburgs lost much influence in germany

          7. Results of the Thirty Years War

             1. Germany was physically devastated (about ⅓ of the population died l as high as 50% in certain areas)

             2. Germany was futther divided by rht decline of the HRE

             3. It ended the wars of religion

             4. Marked the beginning of the rise of france as the dominant European power; it also accelerated the continued rise of England, the Netherlands, and Prussia

                1. Balance of power diplomacy emerged in Europe

             5. Memory Device for Treaty of Westphalia (EF-CHIP)

What Mrs. Minasyan Said:

• Priests are above reproach. They are much more holy than you

• Know Pope Leo the 10th, who supported Tetzel

• Pushed for education and democracy

• You need to know confessions of Augsburg - SAQ

• Memory device of the catholic reformation: Saint Paul 

• Society of Jesus

• Abuses reformed in church practices

• Index of prohibited books

• No significant change in church doctrine

• Trent council of

• Pope Paul III 

• Protestant Ursuline Order of nuns

• Latin Vulgate

• important picture

• another important one

• The thirty years war starts off as a religious war but later turns to a political war.

Christianity-

Orthodox-

Greek and Russian

Catholic-

Luther fighting against

Apostolic

Protestants-

Lutherans 

Anabaptists

Calvinists

Puritans 

Baptists 

Age of Absolutism Notes

1.  Absolutism 

   1. Derived from the traditional assumption of power (eg heirs to the throne) and the belief in the “divine right of kings” - god chosen right; divine right theory

      1. Louis XIV of France was the quintessential/model absolute monarch

   2. Characteristics of Western European Absolutism

      1. The sovereignty of a country was embodied in the person of the ruler

      2. Absolute monarchs were not subordinate (less) to national assemblies (they were superior)

      3. The nobility was effectively brought under control

         1. This contrasts Eastern European absolutism where the nobility remained powerful

         2. The nobility could still at times prevent absolute monarchs from completely having their way

      4. Bureaucracies (steps to get something done in government) in the 17th century were often composed of career officials appointed by and solely accountable to the king

         1. They often were rising members of the bourgeoisie or the new nobility (“nobles of the robe”) who purchased their titles from the monarchy

      5. The french and spanish monarchies gained effective control of the roman catholic church in their countries

      6. They maintained large standing armies during peacetime - new monarchs depended on nobles

         1. Monarchs no longer relied on mercenary or noble armies as had been the case in the 15th century and earlier 

      7. They employed a secret police force to weaken political opponents

      8. Foreshadowed totalitarianism of the 20th century but lacked the financial, technological, and military resources of 20th-century dictators (like Stalin and Hitler)

         1. Absolute monarchs usually did not require total mass participation in support of the monarchs' goals

         2. Those who did not overtly oppose the state were left alone

   3. Philosophy of absolutism 

      1. Jean Bodin (1530-1596) - god gives power

         1. He was among the first to provide a theoretical basis for absolutist states

         2. Lived and wrote during the chaos of the French civil wars of the late 16th century

         3. Believed that only absolutism could provide order and force people to obey the government

      2. Thomas Hobbes Leviathan 1651- people give power

         1. He articulated a pessimistic view of human beings in a state of nature : 

            1. solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, short strong

            2. Anarchy results from chaos

            3. The central drive in every person is power

         2. Stated political sovereignty is derived from the people who transfer it to the monarchy by implicit contract

         3. Justified absolute monarchy but not divine right

            1. His ideas became most closely identified with voltaire in the 18th century: “enlightened despotism”

         4. Hobbes was not popular in the 17th century

      3. Bishop Jacques - Benigne Bossuet

         1. Principal advocate of “divine right of kings” during the reign of Louis XIV

         2. Believed “divine right” meant that the king was placed on the throne by God, and therefore owed his authority to no man or group

2. Development of French absolutism

   1. France in the 17th century

      1. In the feudal tradition, french society was divided into three estates made up of various classes

         1. First estate: clergy (1% of the population) - hierarchy (top of it) of church: bishops, archbishops, cardinals: 0 taxes, a lot of land

         2. Second estate: nobility (3-4%) : 0 taxes, owned most of the land, had privileges

         3. Third estate: the bourgeoisie, artisans, urban workers, peasants: middle class, had education, around 5% was bourgeoisie and the rest were the others, some bourgeoisie were richer than nobility but they couldn't be higher in society 

      2. Hierarchy of social order was based on rank and privilege was restored under the reign of Henry IV

      3. Society was primarily rural 90% of the population

   2. Henry IV 

      1. Laid the foundation for France becoming the strongest European power 

      2. He strengthened the social hierarchy by strengthening government institutions: parlements (councils of noble judges), the treasury, universities, and the catholic church

      3. He was the first king to encourage french colonization in the new world actively; this stimulated the Atlantic trade

      4. First king of the Bourbon dynasty

         1. Came to power in 1589

      5. Weakening the nobility

         1. The old “nobles of the sword” were not allowed to influence the royal council 

         2. Many of the “nobles of the robe” new nobles who purchased their titles from the monarchy, became high officials in government and remained loyal to the king (eg Duke of Sully)

            1. They had been commercially successful members of the bourgeoisie and wanted to increase their social status

         3. Duke of Sully finance minister for Henry IV

            1. His reforms enhanced the power of the monarchy

            2. Mercantilism: increased role of the state in the economy in order to achieve a favorable balance of trade with other countries

               1. Granted monopolies in the production of gunpowder and salt

               2. Encouraged manufacturing of silk and tapestries

               3. Government monopolized mining

            3. Reduced the royal debt

               1. Employed systematic bookkeeping and budgets

               2. In contrast, Spain was drowning in debt

            4. Reformed the tax system to make it more equitable and efficient 

            5. Oversaw improved transportation

               1. Began a nation highways system

               2. Canals linked major rivers

               3. Began a  canal to (AIDEN)

            6. Henry was assassinated in 1610 by a fanatical monk who sought revenge for Henry’s granting of religious toleration

               1. This led to a severe crisis in power

               2. Henry's widow, Marie de Medici ruled as regent until their son Louis XIII came of age

         4. Louis XIII

            1. As a youth his regency was plagued by corruption and mismanagement 

               1. Feudal nobles increased their power

               2. Certain nobles convinced him to assume power and exile his mother

            2. Cardinal Richelieu laid the foundation for absolutism in France

               1. Like Henry IV, he was politique (he placed political issues ahead of religious principles)

               2. Intendant System

                  1. Used to weaken the nobility

                  2. Replaced local officials with intendants who reported directly to the king

                  3. Intendants were largely middle-class or robe nobles

                  4. Each of the countries 32 districts had  an intendant responsible for justice, police, and finance

                  5. Government became more efficient 

               3. Built upon Sully’s economic achievements in further developing mercantilism

               4. He increased taxation to fund the military although his tax policies were not as successful as Sully’s

                  1. Resorted to the old system of selling offices

                  2. Tax farmers ruthlessly exploited the peasantry

               5. Richelieu subdued the Huguenots

                  1. Peace of Alais Huguenots lost their fortified cities and protestant armies

                  2. The Calvinist aristocratic influence was reduced

      6. Reign of Louis XIV

         1. Quintessential absolute ruler in European history

            1. Personified the idea that the sovereignty of the state resides in the ruler

               1. Letat, c’est moi (“I am the state”)

               2. He was known as the “sun king” as he was at the center of French power

            2. Strong believer in “divine right” theory (advocated by Bishop Bossuet)

            3. Longest reign in European history (72 years)

               1. Inherited the throne when he was 5 years old

            4. France became the undisputed major power in Europe during his reign through his modernized, state-controlled military

               1. Frances large population meant that a  massive standing army could be created and maintained

               2. French culture dominated Europe

                  1. The French language became the international language in Europe for over 2 centuries (took over Latin)

                  2. France became the epicenter of literature and the arts until the 20th century

         2. The Fronde (mid late 1640s)

            1. Cardinal Jules Mazarin (1602-1661) controlled France when Louis XIV was a child

            2. Some “sword” nobles revolted against Mazarin in the 1640s

            3. Civil war among various noble factions enabled Mazarin to defeat the Nobles

            4. Louis never forgot the humiliation he faced at the hands of the nobles and he was determined to control them

         3. Government Organisation

            1. Recruited his chief ministers from the middle class to keep the aristocracy out of government 

            2. Continued the intendant system begun by Richelieu

            3. Checked the power of institutions that might challenge him

               1. Parlements were fearful of resisting him after the failure of the Fronde

               2. Officials who criticized the government could be arrested

               3. Never called the Estates General

            4. Control over the peasantry (95 % of pop)

               1. Some peasants kept as little as 20% of their cash crops after paying their landlord, government, taxes, and church tithes

               2. corvee: required peasants to work for a month out of each year on roads and other public projects

               3. Idle peasants could be conscripted into the army or forced into workhouses

               4. Rebellious peasants could be executed or  used as galley slaves on ships

         4. Versailles Palace

            1. Grandest and most impressive palace in all of Europe

               1. Reinforce his image as Europe's most powerful ruler

               2. Baroque architecture

               3. Cost of maintaining it was 60% of all royal revenues

               4. The facade was about ⅓ (AIDEN0

            2. Versailles palace became a p[leasure prison for the aristocracy 

               1. Louis gained absolute control over the nobility

               2. Required noblest to live at the palace for several months each year

               3. Nobles were entertained with numerous recreational activities such as tournaments hunts and concerts

            3. Religious policies

               1. Louis considered himself the head of the french catholic church

                  1. Did not allow the pope to exercise political power in the French church

               2. Revoked edict of Nantes with the edict of fountain-bleu in 1685

                  1. Huguentos lost their right to practice Calvinism (essetnially suspended the religious freedom of french protestants)

                  2. About Huguenots 200,000 fled 

               3. Louis supported the Jesuits in cracking down on the Jansenists (Catholics who held some Calvinist views)

            4. Mercantilism  and Bullionism were Frances's fundamental economic policy

               1. Reached its height under Louis finance minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert

                  1. His goal was to economic self-sufficiency for France : Colonization 

                     1. Oversaw construction of roads and canals

                     2. Granted government supported monopolies in certain industries

                     3. Heavily regulated guilds

                     4. Reduced internal tariffs that had inhibited trade

                     5. Organized french trading companies for international trade

                     6. Forbade exports of foodstuffs

                  2. By 1683, France was europe's leading industrial country

                  3. Excelled in such industries as textiles, mirrors, lace-making, and foundries for steel manufacturing and firearms

                  4. Colbert’s most important accomplishment was developing the merchant marine

                  5. Military buildup stimulated the economy: uniforms, overcoats, weapons, ammunition

                  6. Drawbacks of mercantilism and the french economy:

                     1. Poor peasant conditions (taxation) resulted in large emigration out of rance

                     2. Louis opted for creating a massive army instead of a formidable navy

                        1. Result: France later lost naval wars with England

                     3. wars in later years of Louis's reign nullified Colbert's gains

                        1. ⅔ of his reign he fought wars

      7. Wars of Louis XIV

         1. Overview

            1. Wars were initially successful but eventually economically ruined France

            2. France created the professional modern army

            3. Perhaps the first time in modern European history that they dominated politics

            4. Balance of Power system emerged in response to the threat posed by Louis

               1. No one country would be allowed to dominate the continent since a coalition of other countries would rally against  threatening power

               2. Dutch stadtholder William of Orange (later King William III of England) was the most important figure in thwarting Louis's expansionism 

            5. War of Devolution (1st dutch war) 1 year 

               1. Louis invaded the spanish netherlands (belgium) without declaring war

               2. Treaty of aix la chapelle 

                  1. France got 12  towns on Spanish Netherlands border

                  2. Gave up France-comte (burgundy) to Spain

            6. The Dutch War (1672-78)

               1. Louis invaded the southern Netherlands as revenge for dutch opposition in the previous war

               2. The dutch flooded their countryside by opening their dykes (irrigation system) preventing France (England) from invading Holland

               3. Peace of Nijmegen 

                  1. Represented the limit of expansion under Louis XIV

                  2. France took back the Frnache-Comte from Spain gained some flemish towns and took Alsace

            7. Nine Years War (1688-97)

               1. Louis launched another invasion of the spanish netherlands in 1683

               2. In response the league of augsburg formed in 1686: Hre, spain, sweden, baravaria, saxony, and the dutch republic (AIDEN)

               3. William of orange (now king of england) brought england into the war against france

               4. The war ended with the status quo prior to the war

                  1. France remained in control of Alsace

            8. War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1713)

               1. Cause: the will of Charles II (spanish habsburg king) gave all spanish territories to grandson of Louis XIV

                  1. European powers feared that Louis would consolidate the thrones of France and Spain , thus creating a monster power that would upset balance of power

               2. The grand alliance merged in opposition to france: england, dutch republic, HRE, brandenburg, etc

               3. Treaty of Utrecht - ended the war

                  1. Most important treaty since 1648 (westphalia) and 1763 (paris)

                     1. Maintained the balance of power in europe -did this by size of armies and maintained alliances

                     2. Ended expansion of louis XIV

                     3. France and spain must remain separate entities

                  2. Spanish empire partitioned: 

                     1. Britain was the biggest winner

                        1. Gained the asiento from Spain 

                        2. Gibraltar and Minorca

                     2. Spanish netherlands was given to austria 

                     3. Netherlands gained lands as a buffer against france

                  3. Through louis Bourbon grandson was enthroned in spain the unification of the spanish and french bourbon dynasties was prohibited

                  4. Kings were formally recognized in sardinia (saboy) and prussia (brenadnenburg) 

                     1. They became the nucleus of the future united states of italy and germany

            9. Costs Louis XIV’s wars

               1. Destroyed the French economy due to severe disruption of trade

               2. 20% of french subjects died

               3. Huge debt would be place on the shoulders of the third estate

                  1. The french government was bankrupt

               4. These financial and social tensions sowed the seeds of the French Revolution later in the country

         2. Spanish Absolutism and decoine

            1. Decline of the spanish economy in the 17th century

               1. The spanish economy was hurt by the loss of middle class moors and jews

                  1. Lost population

               2. Spanish trade with its colonies fell%

               3. Spanish treasury was bankrupt

               4. National taxes hit peasantry very hard

                  1. Peasants driven from countryside

                  2. Food production decreased

               5. Created inflation in spain

            2. Political and Military decline

               1. Poor leadership by 3 successive kings

               2. War of Spanish Succession saw spain lose 

      8. The Baroque and absolutism

         1. Reflected the age of absolutism

            1. Began in catholic reformation countries 

         2. Characteristics

            1. So huge to overwhelm the viewer, grand, spacious, Versailles set the stage

         3. Baroque music

            1. Characteristics

               1. Emphasis on text in the music the lyrics and libretto were almost important

               2. Opera invented

               3. J.S Bach

                  1. Greatest of the baroque composers 

               4. George Frederic Handel

                  1. Composer 

                  2. Masterpiece was messiah

      9. HRE: 

         1. Religious divisions due to the reformation. Over 300 principalities, which means they are never going to unify

      10. Ottoman Empire: 

          1. Could not maintain possessions in Eastern Europe and the Balkans in the face of Austrian and Russian expansion. 

          2. It was built on expansion

          3. Sultan had absolute power in Europe

          4. After 1560 the decline in its western expansion resulted in the gradual decline of the empire

          5. Suleiman the Magnificent was perhaps the most powerful ruler in the world during the 16th century

             1. Nearly conquered Austria in 1529, captured Belgrade, nearly ½ of eastern Europe including all Balkan territories, most of Hungary, and eastern Russia

             2. Highly talented Christian children from the conquered provinces were incorporated into the Ottoman Empire's bureaucracy or as professionals

             3. Janissary Corps those Christian slaves who were not selected for the Ottoman bureaucracy served loyally instead in the Turkish army

             4. Fairly tolerant regarding religion in its conquered provinces

             5. Failed to conquer Vienna in 1683 and saw its decline

          6. Polish Kingdom: liberum veto = voting in Polish parliament had to be unanimous for changes to be made; this little could be done to strengthen the kingdom systematically. 

             1. The inability of the Polish monarchy to consolidate its power over the nobility led to Poland's partition

             2. Russia and Prussia encouraged certain Polish nobles to invoke the liberum veto to weaken Poland

             3. By 1800, Poland ceased to exist as a sovereign state; carved up by Russia, Austria, and Prussia

             4. In 1722-1795 Prussia and Russia slowly partitioned Poland. This eventually led to them swallowing Poland up

      11. Serfdom in Eastern Europe 

          1. After 1300 lords in Eastern Europe revived serfdom to combat increasing economic challenges

          2. Lords demanded that their kings and princes issue laws restricting or eliminating of peasants right to move freely

             1. By 1500 Prussian territories had laws requiring runaway peasants to be hunted down and returned to their lords

             2. Laws were passed that froze peasants in their social class. Born peasant, died peasant.

          3. Lords confiscated peasant lands and imposed heavier labor obligations

          4. Legal system was monopiolized by the local lords

          5. Non-serf peasants also affected

             1. Robot 3-4 days without pay

             2. Serfodm consolidated between 1500-1650

                1. Hereditary serfdom was reestablished in Poland, Russia, and Prussia by the mid 17th century

                   1. In poland nobles gained complete control over peasants in 1574 ad could legally impose death penalites on serfs whenever they wished

                   2. In 1694, the Russian tsar rescinded a 9 yera teerm limit on the recovery of serfs

                2. This period saw growth of estate agriculture, especially in poland and eastern germany

                   1. Food prices increased due to influx of gold and silver from americans

             3. Why serfdom in eastern but not in western europe

                1. Political reasons are more plausible the supremacy of noble landlords

                   1. Most kings in fact were essentially first among equals in the nible class and directly benefited from serrfdom

                   2. Eastern lords ahd more political power than in the west ; monarchs needed the nobles

                   3. Weak eastern kings

      12. Austrian Empire (Habsburg Empire)

          1. Rise of austria

             1. Ruler was traditionally selected as HRE emperor

             2. After the war of the spanish succession and the treaty of Utrecth the Spanish throne was now occupied by the Bourbons; Habsburg power was concentrated in Austria

             3. Habsburg empire included

                1. Naples Sardinia, and Milan

                2. Austrian netherlands

                3. Hungary and Transylvania

             4. Ineffectibe hasbburg rule in the HRE forced monarchs to turn inward and eastward to consolidate their diverse holdings in to a strong unified state

                1. Reorganizetion of bohemia after the thirty years war was a major step towards absolutism

                   1. The czech nobility was wipe out during the bohemian phase of thirty years war

                   2. Ferdinand II redistributed czech lands to aristocratic soldiers from all over europe

                   3. Serf coidnitions declied

                2. The old hereditary provinces of austria proper were centralized by Ferdinand II

                   1. Created a permanent standing army which was unprecedented for the Habsburg empire

                   2. Hungary: the largest part of the empire

                      1. Magyars: dominant cultural group

                3. Serfdom intensified in Habsburg lands

          2. Government Organization

             1. Austria was not a national state - its multinational empire included

                1. Austria proper: germans, Italians

                2. Bohemia: Czechs, Germans

                3. Hungary: hungarians, serbs, corats, romanians

             2. No single constitutional system or administration existed in the empire as each region had a different legal relationship to the emperor. Each had different laws

          3. Important Habsburg Rulers:

             1. Ferdinand II

             2. Ferdiandn III 

             3. Leopaold I

             4. Emperor Charles VI

                1. Austria was saved from Louis XIV during the War of Spanish Succession with its alliance with Britain and the military leadership of Prince Eugene

                2. Pragmatic Sanction 

                   1. Habsburg lands were never to be divided and were to be passed intact to a single heir

                   2. His daughter Maria Theresa inherited Charles's empire in 1740 and ruled for 40 years

   3. Prussia (Hohenzollerns)

      1. Background

         1. The ruler of Brandenburg became one of 7 electors in the HRE in 1417

         2. Yet by the 17th century Brandenburg was not significantly involved in HRE affairs

      2. Frederick William, the Great Elector (of Brandenburg)

         1. Background

            1. Strict Calvinist but granted toleration to Catholics and Jews

            2. Admired the Swedish system of government and Dutch economic power

            3. The ongoing struggle between Sweden and Poland for control of the Baltic after 1648 and the wars of Louis XIV created an atmosphere of permanent crisis. Prussia was always in the middle of crisis

         2. The great elector established prussia as a great power and laid the foundation for the future unification of Germany in the 19th century

            1. Most significantly, he oversaw Prussian militarism and created the most efficient army in Europe

            2. He employed military power and taxation to unify his Rhine holdings, Prussia, and Brandenburg into a strong state

            3. Increased military spending was achieved through heavy taxes (twice that of Louis XIV in France) - nobles paid taxes 

               1. Prussian nobility was not exempted

               2. Soldiers also served as tax collectors and policemen, thus expanding the government's bureaucracy

            4. Junkers formed the backbone of the Prussian military officer corps. They are part of the nobility

               1. Those nobles and landowners dominated the estates of Brandenburg and Prussia,

               2. In 1653, the hereditary subjugation of serfs (serfs were the poorest of farmers)was established as a way of compensating the nobles for their support of the crown

               3. Encouraged industry and trade

                  1. Skilled craftsmen and Dutch farmers were imported

                  2. New industries emerged: woolens, cotton, linens, velvet, lace, silk, soap, paper, and iron products

                  3. Efforts at overseas trade largely failed due to Prussia's lack of ports and naval experience

         3. Frederick I “the ostentatious: (same month) 1st king of Prussia

            1. The most popular of Hohenzollern kings

               1. Sought to imitate the court of Louis XIV

               2. Encouraged higher education

               3. Founded a university and encouraged the founding of an academy of science

               4. Elcomed immigrant scholars

            2. Fought two ars against Louis XIV to maintain the balance of power

               1. Nine years' war and the war of spanish succession

               2. Allied with the Habsburgs

               3. After the treaty of Utrecht the elector of Brandenburg/Prussia was recognized as the king of Prussia

         4. Frederick William I “The Soldiers King”

            1. Was the most important Hohenzollern king regarding the development of Prussian absolutism

               1. He was a Calvinist, like his father

               2. He obsessed with finding tall soldiers for his army

               3. Also had an interesting system that he initiated: assigning soldiers, but also assigning people for food  (half year in military half year in farm)

            2. He infused militarism into all of Prussian society

               1. Prussia became known as “Sparta of the north”

                  1. One notable diplomat said prussia is not a sate with an army but an army with a state

                  2. Society became rigid and highly disciplined

                  3. Unquestioning obedience was the highest virtue

                  4. Most militarist society of modern times

               2. Nearly doubled the size of the army

                  1. Prussia had the best army in Europe

                  2. Europe 4th largest army (next to France, Russia, and Austria)

               3. 80% of government revenues went towards the military

               4. The Prussian army was designed to avoid war through deterrence

                  1. The only time Frederick William I fought a war was after Sweden occupied a city in northern Germany; the Swedes were subsequently forced out

               5. Oversaw the most efficient bureaucracy in Europe

                  1. Removed the last of the parliamentary estates and the local self-government

                  2. Demandded absolute obedience and discipline from civil servants

                     1. Promotions were based on merit

                     2. Some commoners were able to rise to positions of power

                  3. High levels of taxation

               6. The junkers remained the officers' caste in the army in return for supporting the king's absolutism

               7. The government established compulsory elementary education in 1717

                  1. Established approximately 1000 schools for peasant children

4. Russia

   1. Warm water ports were being fought by other countries in the black sea. 

   2. Tried to westernize/modernize

   3. Romanov Dynasty (1613-1917)

5. James I  (1603-1625)

   1. Background

      1. Elizabeth I left no heir

      2. James VI of schoalnd was next in line to assume the throne

   2. Wanted no bishops or hierarchy

      1. Twice dissolved parliament over issues of taxation and parliamentary demands for free speech 

         1. Elizabeth I had left behind a large debt

         2. Parliament wanted free speech

   3. James needed  money from parliament 

6. Charles I 1625-1642

1. He was a Presbyterian but married a Catholic

–> This meant that his heir would be Catholic since the woman picked the religion of the kids (situation repeats w/James II)

2. 

7. Petition of Rights

   1. Parliament attempted to encourage charles to grant basic legal rights in return for granting tax increases

   2. provisional:

      1. Only parliament had the right to levy taxes

      2. No one should be imporsoned without due process of law

      3. all had the right to heabeas corpus

      4. No forced quartering of soldiers in homes of private citizens

      5. Martial law (military rule in time of peace) could not be declared in peacetime

   3. Chrales disssolved parliament in 1629

      1. Parlaiemtn continued to refuse increased taxation without its consent

      2. Parliament also had demanded that any movement of the government towards catholicism and arminianism be treated as treason

   4. Charles rule without parliament between 1629-1640 (the thorough)

      1. Charles ruled as an absolute monarch during these 11 years

      2. Raised money using medieval (AIDEN)

8. The “Short Parliament” 1640

   1. Scottish military revolt in response to charles attemtp to impose teh english common book of prayer on the scottish presbyterian church

   2. Charles needed new taxes to fight the war agaisnt scotland

   3. Parliament reconvened in 1640 but refused to grant chalres new taxes if he did not accept  the petition of rights and church reforms

   4. Chrales disbanded parlaiemtn again

9. “Long parliament” 1640-48

   1. Desperate for money after the scottish invasion of northern england in 1540, charles finally agreed to certain demands by parliament

      1. Parliament could nto be dissolved without its consent

      2. Parliament must meet at least once every three years

      3. Ship money was abolished

      4. Thos who persecute dpuritans were to be tried and executed (including archbsihop Laud)

      5. The star chamber was abolished

      6. Common law courts were supreme to the kings court

      7. Refused funds to raise an army to defeat the irish revolt (two issues, ireland and scotland)

   2. Puritans becmae the majority in parliament and became against the king

3. The English Civil War (1642-49)

   1. Immediate cause

      1. Charles tried to arrest several uritan MPs but a crowd of 4000 came to its defense

         1. An irish rebellion had broken out and parliament was not willing to give the king an army

      2. March 1642, charles declared war agaisnt his opponents in parliament

      3. Roundheads calvinists opposed the king

         1. Consisted largely of puritans and presbyterians

         2. Allied with scotland in return for guarantees presbyterianism would be imposed on england after the war

         3. Supported by persbyterians

      4. Pliver Cromwell, a puritan independent, led his new model army to victory

         1. Charles surrendered to the scots in 1646 and convinced them to invade england to restore him to the throne

   2. Prides purge 1648 

      1. Parliament debated restoring charles I to the throne

      2. The new model army without cromwells knowledge removed all non-puritans from parliament leaving a “Rump Parliament”

      3. The rump put charles I on trial for treason - created a dictatorship (Machiavelli)

   3. 3 new relgious sects emerged during the civil war

      1. Levellers - sought social and political reforms for a more egalitarian (equal) society

      2. Diggeers - denied parliaments atuhority and rejecte privat eland ownership

      3. Quakers - believed in an inner light

4. The Interregnum under Cromwell

   1. The Interregnum

   2. The prectorate

   3. They questionied if richard, cromwell's son was a effective leader, but was ineffective as his successor

      1. The stuarts under Charles II (brother of Charles I)were restored to the throne in 1660

New monarchs and absolute monarchs comparison/contrasting

Prussians did meritocracy

• Bill of Rights (1689): Limited the power of the English monarchy, established parliamentary supremacy, and protected individual rights like free speech in Parliament, fair trials, and no cruel punishments.

• Magna Carta (1215): Limited the king’s power for the first time, established principles of due process, and affirmed that the monarchy must govern according to the law.

• Petition of Right (1628): Challenged the divine right of kings, limited the king’s authority, and established that the king could not levy taxes, imprison without cause, or quarter soldiers without Parliament’s consent.

• Act of Supremacy (1534): Declared the King of England as the Supreme Head of the Church of England, separating England from the authority of the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church.

What is the Glorious Revolution?

The Glorious Revolution (1688) was a bloodless overthrow of King James II of England, replacing him with William III and Mary II. It established constitutional monarchy, limited the power of the monarchy, and ensured Parliament’s supremacy, setting the stage for modern democratic governance in England.

1. The Scientific Revolution

   1. Medieval view of the world

      1. Primarily religious and theological

      2. Political theory based on the divine right of kings

      3. A society governed by church views, traditions, and practices

      4. Superstition played a major role in scientific thought in the early 16th century and was still based on medieval ideas

         1. Views about the universe were primarily influenced by the ancient ideas of Aristotle

         2. The geocentric view held that the art was the center of a static, motionless universe

         3. Science was essentially a branch of theology

   2. Causes of the Scientific Revolution

      1. Medieval universities

         1. By 1300, philosophy had become an accepted discipline

         2. Medieval philosophers developed a degree of independence from theologians and a sense of free inquiry

         3. Leading universities established new professorships in mathematics, astronomy, and physics within their departments of philosophy

         4. Prominent scientific figures either studied or taught at universities

      2. The Renaissance stimulated science by rediscovering ancient mathematics

         1. Renaissance patronage was often scientific as well as artistic and humanistic

      3. navigational problems on sea voyages in the age of overseas expansion created a need for scientific advances

         1. New instruments: telescope, barometer, thermometer, pendulum clock, microscope, and air pump

         2. Gresham College, England: scientists worked closely with top officials in the Royal Navy and leading merchants and shipbuilders

            1. It became the main center of scientific activity during the first half of the 17th century

      4. Scientific methodology

         1. Bacon formalized empirical 

         2. The Scientific Revolution became the primary cause of the new worldview that developed in the 16th and 17th centuries

            1. Secularism emerged, and many educated people became openly hostile to religion 

   3. Astronomy

      1. 16th century

         1. Nicolaus Copernicus

            1. On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres (1543)

               1. Copernicus postponed the publication of his book, fearing a backlash from the scientific community.

               2. He dedicated the book to Pope Paul III and did not intend his theories to challenge church doctrine.

            2. Heliocentric view: argued that the earth revolved around the sun and that the sun was the center of the universe

               1. Observed that the stars did not move 

               2. The universe now seemed enormous, perhaps infinite

               3. A significant anomaly in this theory, the retrograde motion of planets relative to the position of the Earth, was remedied by the false premise of epicycles.

               4. Copernicus directly challenged Ptolemy.

            3. Religious reaction to the Copernican theory

               1. Martin Luther and John Calvin condemned/criticized Copernicus’ theory, pointing to Biblical passages supporting the medieval view of geocentrism.

               2. Catholic reaction was initially less forceful as the church didn't always interpret the bible literally. 

            4. Tyco Brahe

               1. Europe's best astronomer in the late 16th century

               2. He built the best observatory in Europe and, for decades, collected massive data on his observations of the cosmos.

                  1. This data became a cornerstone of astronomy for centuries

               3. His data later proved Copernicus’ theory

                  1. He did not accept the Copernican theory - afraid of the catholic church

            5. Johann Kepler

               1. The first great protestant scientist who earlier had worked as an assistant to Brahe

               2. Proved copernican theory

               3. Three laws of planetary motion

                  1. Orbits are elliptical

                  2. Planets do not move at uniform speeds while in their orbits

                  3. The time it takes for a planet to orbit the sun is directly based on its distance from the sun

   4. 17th Century

      1. Galileo Galilei

         1. Developed the laws of motion using the experimental method

            1. Used the experimental method 

            2. Acceleration experiment: gravity was a universal force that produced uniform acceleration

               1. all  falling objects descend with equal velocity regardless of their weight

            3. Law of inertia: an object that is in motion remains in motion

         2. Validated Copernicus’ heliocentric view with the aid of a telescope

            1. Galileo was the first to use the telescope as a scientific instrument; he built one himself

            2. He demonstrated that the moon and other planets were not perfectly round

            3. Discovered the four moons of Jupiter

         3. Galileo's findings became controversial in Catholic countries

            1. His views were supported mainly in protestant northern Europe, where reformers had questioned Catholic doctrines

            2. The catholic church in 1616 declared the Copernican theory to be heretical

   5. Isaac Newton 

      1. Principle of Universal Gravitation

         1. Since these natural laws are unchangeable and predictable, God's active participation in the natural world is not needed to explain the forces of nature. God is the clockmaker; he created everything to work perfectly.

            1. This directly challenged medieval beliefs.

            2. This view became the foundation of the Enlightenment view of god: deism.

   6. Scientific Method

      1. Inductive method for scientific experimentation

         1. Begin with an inductive observation, form a hypothesis, conduct experiments, and organize the data.

         2. Renounce notions and begin with forming an acquaintance with things

         3. Bacon's inductive method, coupled with Descartes's deductive reason, formed the backbone of the modern scientific method

      2. Rene Descartes

         1. Discourse on method; advocated the use of deductive reasoning

            1. He employed deductive reasoning to prove his existence

            2. Believed science must: 

               1. Start with clear and indisputable facts

               2. Subdivide each problem into as many parts as necessary using a step-by-step logical sequence.

         2. He demonstrated the relationship between algebra and geometry and developed analytical geometry.

         3. Cartesian Dualism divided all existence into the spiritual and the material.

            1. The spiritual can only be examined through deductive reasoning (logic)

            2. The material is subject to the experimental method

         4. Modern scientific method

2. Anatomy, physiology, and biology

   1. Scientists began challenging traditional Greco-Roman medical theories of health and disease, such as the 2nd-century Roman physician Galen.

      1.  Galen believed in a proper balance of the four humors 

   2. Paracelsus

      1. Swiss physician and alchemist

      2. A pioneer in the experimental method of medicine

   3. Vesalius 

      1. Flemish physician

      2. Human Anatomy

      3. Dissected cadavers to achieve stunning detail in his drawings

   4. William Harvey

      1. English royal physician 

      2. The circulation of Blood explains how blood is pumped by the heart and circulated throughout the body.

   5. Anton van Leeuwenhoek

      1. Father of microscopy, made the microscope

   6. Royal Scientific societies

      1. Governments and monarchs encouraged scientific inquiry to further the prestige of the state and remain at the cutting edge of technology.

      2. Created a means by which scientists could communicate with each other internationally; this helped forge an international scientific community. 

      3. The Royal Society in England was perhaps the most successful and prestigious; it was founded in 1660

      4. Others were created in Naples/Italy, France (Louis XIV), Prussia (Frederick I), and Russia ( Peter the Great) 

   7. Consequences of the Scientific Revolution

      1. Led directly to the enlightenment 

      2. Improvements in exploration (John Harrison's chronometer gave mariners the ability to determine longitude quickly) 

      3. Experimentation helped accelerate the agricultural revolution in the 18th century.

      4. Improvements in medical knowledge later led to medical advances 

      5. Reduced the support for witch hunts by discrediting superstition and witchcraft as fallacies

      6. Science and religion were not in acute conflict until the 19th and 20th centuries

         1. There were few attempts in the 17th and 18th centuries to secularize science

            1. Scientists believed they were studying and analyzing God's creation

            2. Universal agreement existed among scientists and philosophers regarding the supernatural origin of the universe

            3. Debate centered on the extent (AIDEN)

         2. After the catholic counter-reformation, the church became more hostile to science, and science declined in Italy (not France)

            1. Protestant countries became the leaders of the scientific revolution, especially in England.

3. Alchemy and Astrology

   1. Alchemy and astrology continue to appeal to elites and some natural philosophers, partly because they shared with the new science the notion of a predictable and knowable universe.

      1. Alchemy was the medieval forerunner of modern chemistry

      2. Paracelsus mixed magic and valid science in ways that defied modern science

   2. Astrology

      1. Prominent leaders like Queen Elizabeth of England paid astrologers to forecast their future.

      2. Gerolamo Cardano prepared horoscopes for Edward VI of England

      3. Brahe was the court astrologer in Denmark, Kepler was the astrologer of the Austrian Habsburgs, and Galileo provided horoscopes Medici family members in Florence, Italy

      4. In the oral culture of peasants, a belief that divine and demonic forces governed the cosmos persisted

Enlightenment 

1. The Enlightenment (reached maturation by 1750)

   1. Secular worldviews merged for the first time in human history

      1. The belief that natural science and reason could explain all aspects of life

      2. Belief in man’s intellect apart from god

      3. Faith in reason, not revelation

      4. Deism: The religious arm of the Enlightenment 

         1. The existence of God was a rational explanation of the universe and its form.

         2. God was a deistic Creator–a cosmic clockmaker–who created the universe, stepped back, and left it running like a clock.

         3. The inverse was governed by “natural law,” not by personal god

            1. Some called it the ghost in the machine

            2. The supernatural was not involved in human life

         4. Deism grew out of newtons theories regarding natural law

      5. Baruch Spinoza: philosopher during the Scientific Revolution whose worldview equated god and nature

   2. Principles of the scientific revolution were applied to human society and institutions

      1. Progress in society was possible if natural laws and how they applied to society could be understood (future generations better than us)

      2. Education was seen as a key to helping society to progress

   3. John Locke: most significant of the Enlightenment thinkers

      1. Two treatises on Civil Government (1690)

         1. Philosophical defense for the “Glorious revolution”

         2. Humans in a state of nature: Locke believed humans are good but lack protection

            1. This contrasts Hobbes's view of humans in a state of nature that is “nasty and brutish.”

         3. Governments provide the rule of law but only through the consent of the governed.

         4. The purpose of government is to protect the people's natural rights: life, liberty, and property.

            1. Social contract: people agree to obey the government in return for protection of natural rights

         5. Right to rebellion

      2. Essay Concerning Human Understanding

         1. One of the great works of the Enlightenment

         2. Stressed the importance of environment on human development

         3. Tabula rasa: the human mind was born as a blank slate and registered input from the sense passively

         4. Locke saw all human knowledge as the result of sensory experiences without any preconceived notions

            1. He rejected Descartes’ view that all people are born with specific basic ideas and ways of thinking

         5. For progress to concur in society, education was critical in determining human development

         6. This undermined the Christian view that humankind was essentially sinful

         7. The ideal of religious toleration was popularized by many scholars who made the Enlightenment accessible to the public

            1. Bernard de Fontenelle

               1. Made highly complicated scientific ideas accessible to a broad audience

               2. Stressed the notion of progress

               3. Skeptical of absolute truth and questioned claims of organized religion

            2. Pierre Bayle Critical and Historical Dictionary

               1. Advocated complete tolerance of ideas

                  1. A person should be free to worship any religion or none at all

                  2. Argued religion and morality were not necessarily linked

               2. He was skeptical: believed nothing should be known beyond all doubt

                  1. Similar to Montaigne's earlier views

               3. His primary criticism was of Christianity's attempt to impose orthodoxy

   4. The Philosophes

      1. Notable 18th-century French philosophers were committed to fundamental reform in society.

         1. They were highly successful in popularizing the Enlightenment, although they were not professional philosophers like Descartes and Locke.

            1. By 1775, much of Western Europe's educated elite had embraced the Enlightenment.

            2. They believed in progress by discovering the natural laws governing nature and human existence.

            3. They were radically optimistic about how people should live and govern themselves.

      2. Voltaire (1694-1778)

         1. Perhaps the utmost influence of all the Enlightenment philosophers

            1. He wrote the criticism with the shape of sarcasm 

         2. He challenged traditional catholic theology

            1. Strong deist views

            2. Believed prayer and miracles did not fit with natural law

            3. Believed that human reason was the key to progress in society, not religious faith

         3. His social criticism inspired a call for change, setting the stage for the French Revolution later in the century

            1. He hated bigotry and injustice and called for religious toleration

            2. His most famous quote against religious intolerance was crush the infamous thing

            3. Although Voltaire was raised a Christian he came to distrust organized religion as corrupt in its leadership and for having moved away from the central message of Jesus

         4. Advocated “enlightened” despotism, a more benevolent form of absolutism believing people were incapable of governing themselves

            1. These views were similar to Hobbes

            2. Influenced several enlightened despots, including Frederick the Great of Prussia, who invited Voltaire to live in his court in Berlin, and Catherine the Great of Russia, Joseph II of Austria, and Napoleon of France

            3. Believed inequality before the law but not equality of classes

      3. Baron De Montesquieu 

         1. French noble who hated the absolutism of Louis XIV

         2. Spirit of the laws: called for the separation of powers in government into three branches (monarchy, nobility, and the rest of the population)

            1. The primary goal was to prevent tyranny and promote liberty

            2. The principle of checks and balances would ensure that no single branch of government became too powerful, as the other two branches could check excess power

            3. Supported the 13 apartments in France (judicial tribunals of nobles) as a check against the tyrannical absolute rule by the monarch

      4. Jean Jacques Rousseau

         1. Social Contract

            1. Believed that too much of an emphasis on property and not enough consideration of people was a root cause of social injustice - supposed to create democracy

            2. The general will, a majority consensus, should control a nation. This strongly implies democracy.

               1. Downside: minority viewpoints were not recognized

            3. Though these ideas seem to support democracy, the ambiguous nature of “general will” was later manipulated by dictators to rationalize extreme nationalism and tyranny. 

            4. Though considered part of the Enlightenment, Rousseau is more accurately seen as a founder of the Romantic movement. 

               1. After the French Revolution, the Enlightenment's emphasis on reason gave way to a glorification of emotion.

            5. Rousseau believed that man in a simpler state of nature was good—a noble savage—but was corrupted by materialism and civilization.

      5. Emile

         1. Supported progressive education, learning by doing; self-expression was encouraged.

         2. However, he argued against equality for women in society and educational opportunities.

         3. Ironically, he left his five children in the orphanage

      6. Denis Diderot: The Encyclopedia

         1. Multi-volume tome was perhaps the greatest TNA and most representative work of the philosophes.

         2. It was a compendium of political and social critiques from various Enlightenment philosophers. 

         3. Helped to popularize the views of the philosophes

         4. Emphasized science and reason while criticizing religion, intolerance, injustice, and tyranny

            1. Sought to teach people to think critically and objectively

         5. The encyclopedia was banned in France; the pipe placed it on the index of banned books

      7. Marquis Di Beccaria: On crimes and punishment

         1. Sought to humanize criminal law based on Enlightenment concepts of reason and equality before the law 

            1. Punishment for a crime should be based rationally on the damage done to society; it should not be linked to the religious concept of sin.

         2. Opposed the death penalty except of severe threats against the state

         3. Opposed torture to extract confessions

         4. His views influenced the enlightened despots

            1. Frederick the Great of Prussia banned torture

            2. Catherin the Great restricted the use of torture

            3. Joseph II of Austria banned torture and the death penalty but not other harsh punishments.

   5. Economic Theory

      1. New economic ideas espousing free trade and a free market challenged Mercantilist theory and practice.

      2. Francis Quesbay

         1. He led the physiocrats in France who opposed mercantilist policies 

         2. They sought to reform the existing agricultural system by instituting laissez-faire in agriculture

         3. They believed the French government and nobility had too  much control over land which stifled agricultural production

      3. Adam Smith: Wealth of nations - father of capitalism

         1. The book is considered the bible of capitalism

         2. It refined and expanded the laissez-faire philosophy of the physiocrats

         3. Smith believed the economy is governed by the natural laws of supply and demand

            1. In a free market economy competition will encourage producers to manufacture most efficiently in order to seel higher quality, lower cost goods than competitors

            2. Government regulation only interferes with this natural self-governing style

            3. The invisible hand of the marketplace- the laws of supply and demand - will dictate the price at which society benefits the most

   6. Women in the Enlightenment

      1. Women played a major role in the salon movement

         1. Many of the brightest minds of the Enlightenment assembled in salons to discuss the major issues of the day

         2. This represented a major example of how new venues in civic society disseminated information to society, a break away form the traditional venues of the Church or government 

            1. Enlightenment culture was also spread through other venues such as coffeehouses, academies, lending libraries, and Masonic Lodges  

            2. In england coffee houses that attracted a high class clientele that discussed enlightenment views were largely male-dominated

            3. However, debating societies in england welcomed women to participate (to a certain extent)

         3. Certain french women organized salons and took part in the discussions such as Madame de Geoffrin, Madame de Stael, and Louise de Warens

            1. They were largely organizers and facilitators, however, and were not always treated as equals in the discussions

      2. Madame De Geoffrin played a major role in patronizing Diderot's encyclopedia

      3. Madame de Stael

      4. Intellectuals such as Rousseau offered new arguments for the exclusion of women from political life, although these views did not go unchallenged

         1. Rousseau argued that because men and women had different temperament and character, women should not be educated in the same manner as men

         2. He believed that men and women had very different destinies due to their biology

         3. He stated that men need women to satisfy their desired byt iwmen needed men for both their desires and their necessities; therefor, men are more valuable

         4. Many articles in the encyclopeida emphaszied the relative weakness fo women or that their lives were frivolous and unconcerned with important issues; their traditional roles as wives and mothers continued to be emphasized

         5. Some philosophes favored increased rights and education for women 

            1. Marquis de condorcet was the only writer to go so far as to support female suffrage

         6. Mary Wollstonecraft promoted political and educational equality for women

            1. She argued woemn should receive similar educational opportunities as men as they are essential to the nation for they educate their children and they can be companions to their husbands, rather ornaments

            2. In Vindication of the Rights of Women, she ssued a scathing attack on Rousseaus views regarding education 

            3. Olympe de Gouges Declaration of the Rights of Woman and Female Citizen 

               1. Demanded that french women be given the same rights as french men during teh eraly years of the french revolution

               2. Also wrote in another work that there should be equality in marriage

               3. Because of her criticism of the french government she was beheaded

   7. Later Enlightenment 

      1. More skeptical philosophers and continued to demand religious toleration

      2. Baron Paul d'Holbach

         1. Argued humans were esssentially like marchines determined by outside forces

         2. Staunch atheism, determinism, and attacks on Christianity undermined the enlightenment

      3. David Hume

         1. Argued against faith in both natural law and religion

            1. Gclaimed desire, rather than reason, government human behavior

         2. As a skeptic he claimed that human ideas were merely the result of sensory edxpreineces

      4. Marquis De Condorcet

         1. Utopian ideas that undermined the legitimacy of enlightenment ideas

      5. Rousseau: attacked rationalism and civilization as destroying rather than liberating the indivi

         1. Romantic movement

         2. Believed in a more loving and personal god

      6. Immanuel Kant

         1. German philosopher of enlightenment

         2. Separate science and morality into separate branches of knowledge

2. Theistic Opposition to Rationalism

   1. German pietism, especially count von zinzendorf, leader of the moravian brethren, emphasized the need for spiritual conversion and relgiious experience

   2. Methodism taught emphasize a need for spiritual regeneration and a moral life that would demonstrate reality of the conversion

      1. Led in england by John Wesley

   3. Roman catholic jansenism in france argued against

3. Classical Liberalism

   1. Constituted the political outgrowth of the enlightenment

      1. Belief in the liberty of the individual and equality before the law 

      2. Natural rights philosophy played a profound role in American and french revolutions of the late 18th century

      3. Impact of Locke and Montesquie was clearly evidence in the american constitution and in the french declaration of the rights of man

      4. General will

   2. Beleief in laissez faire capitalism

      1. Government should not interfere in the economy 

      2. Capitalism opposite of mercatnitilsm

4. Impact of the enlightenment on society

   1. Emergence of a secular world view of the universe for the first time ever

   2. Enlightened despotism in Prussia, russia ,autria and france

   3. American and french revolutions as a result of classical liberalism

   4. Educational reform in various countries

   5. Growth of laissez faire captilaims in the 19th century during the early industrial revolution in england and in 19th century america

   6. New public venues and print media emerged

5. Enlgihtened despotism

   1. In the 18th century, a number of states in eastern and central europe experienced with enlightened ideals

   2. Forms of the enlightened despots were modest:

      1. Religious toleration

      2. Streamlined legal codes

      3. Increased access to education

      4. Reduction or elimination of torture and the death penalty

   3. Frederick the Great of prussia

      1. Background

         1. One of the greates rulers in german history

         2. Son of frederick william I who gave him a strong military education

         3. Profoundly influenced by the Enlightenment

            1. Considered french learning to be superior

            2. He patronized voltaire and invited him to live in his court in berlin

            3. Musician and poet

      2. Wars of frederick the gerat

         1. The first 23 yeras of fredericks regin were dominated by warfare

         2. War of the austrian succession

            1. Cause: frederick invaded and annexed silesia, part of the AUSTRIAN HABSURG EMPIRE

               1. Frederick violated austrias Pragmatic Sanction whereby the great powers recognized that charles VII daughter Maria Theresa would inherit the entire habsburg empire

               2. Prussia efficiently defeated austria

               3. Treaty of aix la chapelle

                  1. Prussia gained silesia and doubled its population 

                  2. Prussia was now recognized as the most powerful of all the german states and as one of europes great powers

            2. Seven Years war

               1. Cause maria theresa soguth to regain silesia dn gained russia and france as allies

                  1. Goal of austria, russia, and france was to conquqer prussia and divide its territories among the winners

                  2. Diplomatic revolution of 1756

                     1. France and austria traditional enemies were now allies

                     2. Britain and traditional ally of russia supported prussia with money

                     3. Bloodiest war in euerope since the thrity years war of the 17th centry

                        1. It became a world war that alsso included engalnd and franeces struggle for north america

                        2. Prussia was outnumbered by its enemies

                        3. Prussia suffered 180,000 dead and severe disruotions to its society

                        4. Berlin was twice capturesd and partially destroyed by russian troops

                        5. Prussia was on the verge of catastrophic

                        6. This saved prussia from almost cetain defeat

                        7. Peter was assassinated and replaced by catherin II as a result

            3. Treaty of Paris

               1. Most important treaty of the 18th century adn most important since treaty of westphalia

                  1. Prussia permanently retained silesia

                  2. France lost all of its north american colonies to great britain 

                  3. Britain gained terriotriy in India

         3. Enlightened reforms of frederick the gerat

            1. Frederick saw himself as the frist servant of the state

               1. The destruction of war encouraged fredrick to help improve society

               2. Yet, frederick was an absolute ruler

               3. His reforms were mostly intended to icmrease the power of the state

               4. The peasantry did not really benefit from his reforms - the state benefited instead

            2. Allowed religious freedom 

               1. Jews finally gained relgious freedom  

            3. Codified and streamlined laws

               1. Numerous existing laws from throughout prussia were simplified to create a clear unified national code of law

               2. Jduiicail system became efficient in decdiing cases quickly and impartially

            4. Freed serfs on crown lands

               1. Fredericks motive; peasants were ended for the army

               2. Serfdom remained in full force on noble estates although frederick ordered an end to physical punishment of serfs by their lords

            5. Improved the state bureaucracy by requiring examinations for civil servants

            6. Reduced censorship - people could more express their ideas

            7. Abolished capital punishment

            8. Encouraged immigration - scientist and stuff

            9. Encouraged industrial and agricultural growth

      3. The social structure in prussia remained heavily stratified/leveled/not equal

         1. Serfdom on noble lands maintained

         2. The junkers were the backbone of prussia  military and the state

            1. State did not recognize marriages betwene nobles and commoners

            2. Nobles were nota llowed to seel their lands to non nobles

         3. Middle class found it extremely difficult to move up socially

            1. Civilian bureaucrats wer enot permitted to enter the nobility

            2. However , in the judicial system, ⅔ of judges were non-nobles

   4. Catherine the gerat of russia -

      1. Background

         1. German princess who became queen after her husband peter III was assassinated during the seven years war

            1. Took part in the assassination plot

            2. Poeter the great had abolished the succession of hereditary czars

         2. Lover of french culture refused to speak german or russian; considered ersefl a child of the enlightenment

            1. Diderot lived in her court for a time

      2. Pugachev Rebellion

         1. Eugene Pugachev, a cossack ssoldier, led a huge serf uprising

            1. Demanded end to serfdom, taxes and army service

            2. Landlords and offoicals were muredered all over southwestern russia

            3. Pugachev captured and executed eventually

         2. Catherin needed support of the nobility and gave thenm absolute control over serfs

            1. Serfdom spread to new areas like ukraine

            2. In 1785, catherin freed nobles from taxes and state service

            3. Confiscated orthodox church lands and gave them to her favorite officials or those who helped kill her husband

            4. Nobles reached their height while serfs were worse off

      3. Imported western culture into russia

         1. Architects, artists, musicians, and writers were invited to russia

         2. Culturally, russia gained the respect of western european countries

      4. Educational reforms

         1. She supported the first private printing presses

            1. The number of boks published annually in russia increased to about 400 during her reign compared to a few dozen before

            2. A school fo noble girls founded

      5. Practice of torture was restricted

      6. A limited degree of relgious toleration was allowesd

         1. catherin e stiooed government policy of persceuting old velibers 

         2. Jews were granted civil equality - sarcastic

            1. Jews had suffered much persecution in russia

               1. Jews could not be nobles, join guilds or hold political offices

               2. They were not allowed to participate in agricultural work or certain trades

      7. She allowed strengthened local governments led by elective councils of nobles

         1. Yet the crown was not obligated to accept the recommendations from councils

      8. Shortcomings of Catherine's reforms

         1. Only the state and the nobility benefits while the rest of the russian population benefited little

            1. Nobles gained power

   5. Austria 

      1. Maria Theresa

         1. Sought to improve the condition of her people through absolute rule

         2. She centralized control of the habsburg empire

            1. She limited the power of the nobles

               1. Reduced power of the lords over their serfs

               2. Some serfs were partially freed 

               3.  Feudal dues by peasants were reduced or eliminated

               4. Nobles were taxed

            2. Maria theresa did more to help the condition of serfs than any ruler in european history up to that time (only her son, Joseph II, did more)

               1. Increased the empires standing army from 30k to over 100k

               2. Improved the tax system

               3. Reduced conflicts between various provinces in the empire

            3. She brought the Catholic church in austria under state control

               1. Sought to reduce pope's influence in austria

                  1. Suppressed the jesuits

               2. Taxed the catholic Church in austria

            4. Promoted economic development

               1. Hoped that giving serfs some freedoms would make them more productive 

               2. Abolished guilds

               3. Abolished internal customs duties

               4. Encouraged immigration - scientist sand stuff

               5. Improved transportation

               6. Supported private enterprise

            5. Maria theresa is not considered , however, an enlightened despot

      2. Joseph II

         1. He ruled with his mother Maria theresa, as co-regent until her death in 1780

         2. Perhaps the greatest of the enlightened despots in terms of reforms but in many ways was among the least effective

            1. Deploy influenced by the enlightenment and its emphasis on reforms

            2. He was firm believer in absolutism and he could 

         3. Major reforms:

            1. Abolished serfdom and feudal dues in 1871

               1. Ironically, opposed by many peasants incs the law stated that obligations to lords would have to be paid in cash, rather than labor serfs had little cash available

               2. Nobles resisted their reduced power over the peasantry

               3. Freedom of religion and civic rights to protestants and jews

               4. Allowed freedom of the press to a significant degree

               5. Reduced the influence of the catholic church

               6. Reforme the judicial system and sought to make it equal for all citizens

               7. Absolisehd torture and ended the death peanlty

               8. Expanded state schools

               9. Established hospitals, insane asylums, poorhouses, and orphanges

                  1. The state proiveded foood and medicine to the poor

               10. Made parks and gardens available to the public

               11. Made german the official language of the empire in an effort to asssimilate minorities

               12. The empire declined under josephs reign

                   1. Austria was defeated several times in wars with the Ottoman empire

                   2. The austrian netherlands were in revolt

                   3. Russia was threatening austrias interests in eastern