Exam 3

Chapter 11 Objectives

What are the four types of tissues?

Epithelial: covers body surfaces and lines

cavities.

Connective: supports and binds body parts.

Muscular: moves the body and its parts.

Nervous: receives stimuli, processes that information, and conducts impulses.

Describe the structure and function of epithelial tissue.

Structure: Tightly packed cells that form a continuous layer, also called an epithelium.

A basement membrane of glycoproteins and collagen joins an epithelium to underlying connective tissue.

Functions:

Usually protective.

Secretion (glands).

Absorption.

Excretion.

Filtration.

Identify the type of epithelial tissue based upon the name.

Classified according to cell shape.

Squamous epithelium: flattened cells.

Cuboidal epithelium: cubed-shaped cells.

Columnar epithelium: columnar-shaped cells; resembling rectangular pillars.

Classified according to the number of layers in the tissue.

Simple epithelium: a single layer of cells.

Stratified epithelium: multiple cell layer.

Pseudostratified epithelium: appears to be layered but each cell touches the basement membrane.

Describe the structure and function of connective tissue.

Structure:

Varies widely in appearance and function, but all forms share three basic components

• Specialized cells

• Extracellular protein fibers (matrix)

• Fluid known as a ground substance (matrix)

Matrix typically accounts for most of the volume of connective tissue.

Can be solid, semisolid or liquid

Functions:

Binds organs together.

Provides support and protection.

Fills spaces.

Produces blood cells.

Stores fat.

Identify the different types of connective tissue.

Many types of cells and extracellular fibers in a syrupy ground substance

• Loose Fibrous CT / Dense Fibrous CT

Fluid Connective Tissue

Distinctive population of cells suspended in a watery matrix that contains

dissolved proteins

• Blood / Lymph

Supporting Connective Tissue

Limited cells population in a matrix of densely packed fibers

• Cartilage / Bone

Composition of nonfluid matrix.

Fibers:

• Collagen fibers: protein that gives flexibility and

strength.

• Reticular fibers: thin, highly branched collagen fibers

that form a supporting network.

• Elastic fibers: contain elastin, a protein that is not as

strong as collagen, but more elastic.

Explain the characteristics and types of Muscle Tissue.

Muscular tissue

Composed of cells called muscle fibers.

Muscle fibers contain actin and myosin filaments.

Interaction accounts for sliding movements.

Types of muscle tissues.

• Skeletal

·         Cylindrical, long, and multinucleated due to fusion of several cells into a fiber.

·         Striated due to alternating light and dark bands.

·         Usually attached by tendons to bones of the skeleton.

·         Contraction.

• under voluntary control.

• causes bones of the skeleton to move at joints.

• Smooth (visceral)

·         Cells lack striation; smooth appearance.

·         Occurs in walls of blood vessels and viscera (intestine, stomach, and other internal organs and blood vessels).

·         Cells are spindle shaped, with a single nucleus.

·         Nuclei form an irregular pattern.

·         Not under voluntary control.

• Cardiac

·         Found only in the walls of the heart.

·         Has branching, striated cells, each with a single nucleus.

·         Cells are separate and individual but are bound end to end at intercalated disks.

·         Gap junctions promote the flow of electrical impulses when the heart muscle contracts.

·         Not under voluntary control

Explain the characteristics of Nervous Tissue.

Use the correct anatomical terms when describing the location and relationship of body parts.

Describe the tissue structure of the integument and the functions of the integumentary system.

Structure:

• Skin.

• Accessory organs.

·         Hair.

·         Nails.

·         Sweat glands.

·         Oil glands.

Functions:

Protects underlying tissues from trauma, pathogen invasion, and water loss.

Helps to regulate body temperature.

Synthesizes vitamin D.

Contains sensory receptors—awareness of surroundings.

Describe the main structural features and individual layers of the epidermis.

Epidermis

• Consists of stratified squamous epithelium.

·         Basal cells produce new cells that harden and flatten as they are pushed to the surface by cells forming underneath them.

·         Keratin is a protein that hardens and waterproofs cells.

·         Melanocytes produce the pigment melanin, which protects against UV radiation

Dermis

• Fibrous connective tissue beneath epidermis.

• Contains collagen fibers that help preventoverstretching and tearing.

 •Contains elastic fibers that maintain tension but also stretch to allow movement.

• Contains blood vessels that nourish the skin.

• Contains sensory receptors for touch, pain, pressure, and temperature.

Subcutaneous layer.

• Between skin and underlying structures, such as muscle or bone.

• Components.

·         Loose connective tissue.

·         Adipose tissue that stores fat.

•         Thermal insulation against heat loss or gain.

•         Energy storage

Describe the main functions of the accessory structures of the integumentary system.

Nails

• Protect distal part of digits and help pry things open and pick up small objects.

• Nail root—growth occurs from this epithelial tissue.

• Becomes keratinized as they grow outward.

• Nail body—the visible part of the nail.

• Cuticle—protects nail root.

• Lunula—white half-moon at base; result of thick layer of cells.

Hair Follicles

• Extend from dermis through epidermis.

• Form from epidermal cells in hair root.

• Become keratinized and die as they are pushed away from root.

• Contraction of arrector pili muscles causes “goose bumps” if frightened or feeling cold.

Oil Glands

• Associated with hair follicles.

• Secrete sebum to lubricate hair and skin.

Sweat Glands

• Coiled tubule.

• Some open into hair follicles, others onto skin.

• Assist in modifying body temperature by evaporating heat stored in the fluid.

Chapter 14 Objectives

Name the structures and primary functions of the digestive tract organs.

Functions:

The digestive system contributes to homeostasis using four steps.

• Ingesting food.

• Digesting food into nutrients that cells can use.

• Absorbing nutrients.

• Eliminating indigestible remains.

Structure:

Organs of the digestive system:

•         Pharynx

•         Mouth

•         Tongue

•         Salivary gland

•         Esophagus

•         Diaphragm

•         Stomach

•         Liver

•         Pancreas

•         Gallbladder

•         Small and Large Intestines

Identify the types of digestion and the structures that are involved in each type.

Mechanical digestion.

•         Begin with the chewing of food in the mouth.

•         Continue with the churning and mixing of food in the stomach.

(Mouth, Stomach)

Chemical digestion.

•         Enzymes break down macromolecules into smaller molecules that can be absorbed.

(Small and Large Intestines, Stomach, Mouth)

Describe the anatomy of the oral cavity, and discuss the functions of its structures.

The mouth, which ingests food, is bound externally by the lips and cheeks.

The tongue

• Comprised of skeletal muscles to change the shape of the tongue.

• Taste buds are sensory receptors that allow people to enjoy eating by taste and texture.

• Aids in movement of material within the mouth and in production of sounds.\

The roof of the mouth separates the nasal cavity from the mouth.

• Prevents ingested food from entering the nasal cavity.

• Divided into two parts:

Hard palate (anterior).

•         Contains several bones.

Soft palate (posterior).

•         Made of muscle and connective tissue.

•         Uvula: finger-shaped projection at the back of the mouth.

•         Tonsils: help protect the body from infections.

Salivary glands produce saliva.

• Three pairs of glands are located in the mouth.

•         One pair lies on either side of the face.

•         One pair lies beneath the tongue.

•         One pair lies beneath the floor of the mouth.

• Saliva keeps the mouth moist.

• Saliva contains the enzyme salivary amylase.

•         Begins process of digesting starch.

Describe the types of teeth, and differentiate between the primary and secondary dentition.

Teeth are used to chew food into pieces suitable for swallowing.

20 baby teeth.

32 adult teeth replace baby teeth.

Each tooth has two main divisions.

• A crown.

•         Enamel: covering.

•         Dentin: bonelike.

•         Pulp: nerves and blood

• A root.

•         Dentin.

•         Pulp.

Gingiva (gums).

• Surround and seal teeth.

Describe the anatomy and functions of the pharynx and esophagus and explain the swallowing process.

Pharynx

• Passageway that receives air from the nasal cavities and food from the mouth.

• Food and air passageways cross because the trachea is in front of esophagus.

• Swallowing.

• Reflex action—performed automatically.

• Soft palate closes off the nasopharynx.

• Trachea moves up causing the epiglottis to cover the glottis (opening to air passage).

• As a result, food can enter esophagus only.

Esophagus.

• The esophagus is a muscular tube that extends from the pharynx to the stomach.

• Usually collapsed, except during swallowing.

• Peristalsis, rhythmic muscular contractions, pushes food along the digestive tract.

• A sphincter muscle closes the esophagus from the stomach.

•         Relaxation of the sphincter allows food to enter the stomach.

•         If contents of the stomach escape into the esophagus, this causes heartburn

Describe the structure of the digestive tract tissue.

Mucosa

• Epithelium supported by connective tissue.

• Smooth muscle lines the lumen (central cavity).

• Glandular epithelial cells secrete enzymes.

• Goblet cells secrete mucus.

Submucosa

• Loose connective tissue that contains blood vessels.

• Peyer’s patches—lymph nodules.

•         Help protect us from disease.

Muscularis

• Two layers of smooth muscle.

• Circular, inner layer encircles tube.

• Longitudinal, outer layer runs perpendicular.

Serosa

• Very thin outermost layer of squamous epithelium.

• Secretes serous fluid to moisten surface.

• Organs slide against one another.

Describe the anatomy of the stomach and its histological features

Describe the anatomy and physiology of the small intestine.

Describe the anatomy and physiology of the large intestine.

Describe the large intestine’s histology and role in fecal compaction and explain the defecation reflex.

Name the major and accessory organs of the digestive system.

Describe the function and regulatory activities of the pancreas.

Describe the function and structure of the liver.

Describe the function and structure of the gallbladder.

Discuss the major digestive enzymes and their primary effects.

Chapter 15 Objectives

Identify the major functions.

Describe external respiration and internal respiration.

Identify the structures and describe the functions of the nose.

Identify the structures and describe the functions of the Trachea.

Describe the bronchial tree.

Describe the superficial anatomy of the lungs.

Summarize the processes involved in the movement of air into and out of the lungs.

Describe the brain’s regulation of breathing.

Summarize the physical principles governing the diffusion of gases into and out of the blood.

Describe how oxygen exits the bloodstream and how carbon dioxide enters.

Chapter 19 Objectives

Explain how bones are classified

Identify the parts of a typical long bone, and describe its internal structures.

Compare the structures and functions of compact bone and spongy bone.

Identify the types and general structure of Cartilage.

Explain the phases involved in healing a fractured bone.

Describe the two main divisions of the skeleton, and list the major functions of the skeletal system.

Identify the anatomical features that makeup the axial skeletal system and some bones associated each feature.

Identify and locate the bones of the skull and face.

Identify the regions and structures of the vertebral column.

Describe the function and features of the Rib Cage.

Describe the components of the appendicular skeleton.

Identify the types of joints.

Identify the types of muscle tissue

Explain the terms used to describe the way muscles move appendages.

Describe the systems used to name muscles.

Describe the structure of a muscle fiber.

Explain the structure of the Myofibril and a Sarcomere.

Explain the difference between Slow and fast twitch muscles.

Describe the types of musculoskeletal disorders.