cultures test 2 2

• Instruments:

  • Virtually every culture makes instruments

  • Important part of Material Culture (objects used in everyday life)

    • Construction often connected to materials available in a particular place

  • Travel and new technologies introduce new materials (and instruments)

    • Steel Drums (LG10) were made from discarded oil drums

  • Organology

    • Study of musical instruments and their construction

      • Began in the 19th century as westerners traveled and collected instruments

      • Scholars discover common types shared by many cultures and categorize them

  • Idiophones: Self Sounding instrument

    • Subtypes based on method of sounding [gongs, bells, rattles]

  • Chordophones: Vibrating strings

    • Subtypes based on design and playing techniques: plucked [fingers or plectrum], struck, bowed.

  • Aerophones: Vibrating air

    • Subtypes based on design [horn, pipes]

  • Membranophones: Use membranes stretched over an opening

    • Subtypes based on shape and method of membrane attachment

  • Electrophones: Produce sound electronically

• Bridges in plectrums keep the strings away from any sounding body. Pegs keep the strings in tune

• Aerophones vibrate the air through reeds (single, double, or free (think bagpipes)), forcing of air across a sharp edge (flute, bottle), and vibration of lips via mouthpiece (trumpets, french horns, etc)

Sound

Melody:

• We have different sound colors from pitch, attack, decay, loudness, and overtones

• We have dynamics to add more contrast to the sound and in order to put more meaning in certain sections (Ex: All the Things You Are by Stan Kenton)

• Pitch: Frequency of vibrations

• Melody is a pattern of pitches that is recognizable, performed one after another with a distinct beginning and end (Ex: Twinkle Twinkle Little Star) Linear Arrangement of Pitches

• From the 8th overtone on the notes go up by step.

• POWER OF THE SEMITONE RAHHHHH

• Tuning: Assignment of interval width. 

  • Cents:  Measure used for comparing different systems. Octave: 1200 Cents

• Conjunct (Stepping) and Disjunct (Leaping) melodies exist. The shape of the melody is the Contour.  The beginning or end of the melody are Phrases. There is Decoration in melodies with trills for example. Portamento (Vocab Word of the Day)

• Melody In Singing: Syllabic (One pitch per syllable) or Melismatic (Many pitches per syllable)

Rhythm:

• Flow of music through time

• Can have irregular pulses (BEAT) or free rhythm (irregular)

• Tempo: Slow (adagio, largo) Fast (allegro), Moderate (Moderato)

• Meter (organization of beats into groups): Accent divides beats into Strong and Weak beats

• Duple (2) and Triple (3) Compound (Duple beats divided into 3) Quadruple (4)

• Syncopation (Shift of accent to a normally weak beat)

Texture: The way in which simultaneous sounds relate

• Listening for texture is like cutting through the music vertically 

SOUTH INDIA

• Size Matters

• Gandhi 😀

• Music creates meaning by imitating other sounds (galloping, khoomi, etc), association (Duduk associated with Armenian identity), and direct connection with a language (Talking drum and in the West its a statement vs a question or a pitch in melody)

• Meaning in music is difficult to talk about due to the setting

• Musical Meaning:

  • North (Hindu Tradition):

    • Influenced by Persian traditions (Muslim) and built LARGELY on long improv

  • South (Carnatic Tradition):

    • Built largely on repertoire of Hindu devotional songs and improve is reserved largely for particular sections of pieces.

  • VOCABLE (Sounds that mimic speech (Not words tho))

  • Ornaments are the little pitch shapes in singing and stuff (Ex: Araro Arirara)

  • Raga (Indian pitch collection): Pitches are called Svaras and its a set of directional tendencies for moving one pitch to another. Different ascending and descending patterns (Western Minor Scales are alike). Raga describes common conventions for where to place ornaments or GAMAKAS. 

  • Each raga has its own significance. They are associated with the time of day and with a “flavor” (RASA): Emotional Quality

  • Pillar Tones In Raga are heard in the drone: Both Sa’s (the tonic) and the Pa (5th)

  • Ascent: 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8. Descent: 8-7-5-4-3-2-3~1 (3 to 1 is a portamento!!!)

  • Ascent: sa-re-ga-ma-pa-da-ni-sa. Descent: Sa-Ni-Pa-Ma-Ga-Re-Ga~Sa

  • Adi Tala (Tala is the Rhythmic Cycle): CLAP-Pinky-Ring-Mid-CLAP-wave-CLAP-wave)

• Bagpipes

  • Instrument made for war originally

  • Design goes back to the Roman times. Usage in Scotland begins in the 1200s

  • 1600s: Beginnings of current repertory

  • 1960s/70s: Becomes more popular due to the “Celtic” revival

• Types:

  • Scottish (Highland)

  • Irish adopted from Scotland in the 17th century and developed the Uilleann (Illin) pipe:

    • Smaller and quieter, played with bellows instead of a blowpipe, In-door playing, and helped revive the Irish musical culture in the 60s. Drones can be changed

• Technique:

  • Sound is constant; cannot be controlled during playing.

  • Ornaments are used to decorate the melody and create articulation

  • Vocal imitation of bagpipe melody: canntaireachd (CAN-ter-rekht), “dydling” or “mouth music” which are vocables

  • Pilbroch: Set of variations (Melodic elaborations, usually with increasing ornamentation), often dedicated to commemorate important people and on a ground (Basic melody). PATRICK OG MACCRIMMON 

• MacCrimmon Clan:

  • The Isle of Skye (Scotland): Home of Clan McLeod. Capital (Boreraig)

  • Pipers to the chiefs of the McCleod clan in Scotland. Both players and composers.

  • Operated a college of music and piping until 1770:

    • Developed “Mouth Music” as system for playing repertory by ear and developed playing styles and repertory

• Developments in Spread of Bagpipes and Repertoire:

  • 18th C: Incorporation into English military practice

  • Irish and Scottish diaspora: populations that move away

  • Ireland

    • 16th C: English crown begins settling Protestants in Largely Catholic Ireland

    • 18th/19th C: Famines drive Emigration to US and Canada

  • In the US, many Scottish and Irish immigrants become policemen and firemen, bringing their musical culture with them.

  • The US Navy has pipers on boats

• Dancing:

• Ceilidh (Gaelic: Visit) Musical gathering at house club or pub

  • “Set Dancing:” 4-8 couples in a rectangle (Hence: Square dance)

    • England in the 17th-18th C: Contra dance (Or English Country Dance)

    • US: Square Dancing\

• Migration:

  • Forced and Willing migration: Going away or going to something.

  • Standing on the Shore (LG41): Muslims and Christians. Middle East was a melting pot (duh) cause of how close in proximity it was to so many different cultures and also its coastal. Silk Road type shiii. Iraqi-born Jewish violinist Hakki Obadia. 

  • Genre: MAWWAL: Arab song with alternating sections in regular and free rhythm. Started with defined rhythm but then went into a sort of drawn out vocal section.

  • Sound: Instruments with a blend of Middle-Eastern and Western: Violin, Qanun (Zither), ‘Oud (Lute)

    • ‘Oud: Chordophone, Pear-shaped body with a flat soundboard, Bent peg-box, Strings are in pairs (different amounts depending on origin) 

  • Maqam: Arabic term for mode or scale. Maqam Huzam: Non western tuning system

• Side Note: Hearing and Smelling really trigger memories.

• Spirituals:

  • Slavery existed in America from 1619-1865 and in 1896 the US Congress decided in Plessy v. Ferguson that Blacks and Whites are segregated by Jim Crow laws

  • 1954: Brown v. Board of Education, 1964: Civil Rights Act

  • “Owners” prevented slaves from practicing their native culture: Speaking their native language, worship in traditional ways, and dance curing worship

  • Spirituals: Slaves adapted Christianity ot their own experience, adopted many texts from the Old Testament (Moses and Exodus especially), and often described a better life in Heaven.

  • HUGE Repertory: First Record from Slave Songs of the United States (1867)

  • Influence extends beyond plantation prayer meetings. Sung in White Protestant Churches, and even concerts and theatrical performances.

    • Particularly influential: Fisk University Jubilee Singers.

    • Their tours brought spirituals to a wide international audience and began the broad influence of spiritual music

Bagpipes

• Design is very ancient

• Recorded usage in Scotland begins, ca. 1200 (middle ages)

  • Use as a military instrument

• Usually used in processions, outdoors

  • NOT soft, at least not the Scottish one

  • So loud: used to scare enemies, only wind instrument where sound is continuous 

How it’s played

• Drone pipes on top, air pushed through constantly 

• One pipe has holes to cover/manipulate sound

• Blowpipe: pipe you blow through

• Chanter: pipe that can play the melodies

• Drone pipes

History

•  ancient design

• Recorded usage in Scotland begins 1200

• 1600s: beginnings of current repertory

• 1960s/70s: becomes popular through “Celtic revival” 

Type: Aerophone 

Construction

• The blowpipe has a valve so air won’t come out of it

• Mouthpiece to blow through

• Chanter has a reed

  • play ing pipe has double reed inside champer air gets strong enough to push through double reed and that’s how sound is made to start vibrating

• Chanter usually higher-pitched

• One bass drone, and two tenor drones to balance out how loud the bass drone is 

• 5th constantly plays from the base drone

  • Can be tuned

• Chanter plays like oboe or flute  

Types of bagpipes (Celtic tradition)

• Scottish (highland) pipes

• Irish adopted from Scotland in the 17th C, developed Uileann (“Illin”) pies:

  • Smaller: quieter

  • Played with a bellows rather than with a blowpipe

  • For indoor playing

  • Played an important role in a revival of traditional Irish music culture in the 60s+

Playing technique: ornaments

• Bagpipe sound is continuous; can’t be controlled while playing

• Ornaments are used both to decorate melody and create articulation (silence between notes)

• Vocal imitation of bagpipe melody: canntaireachd (“CAN-ter-rekht”), “dydling” or “mouth music”

• Almost trill like at times to separate notes

Women created own because bagpipe was “male” instrument

• Irish jig and make drone while singing

Scottish Highland Pipes

The Isla of Skye (Scotland) island right off of Scotland

• Home to clan McLeod

MacCrimmons family

• Pipers to the chiefs of the McLeod clan, Isle of Skye

• Players + composers

• Operated a college of music and popping until 1770

  • Developed ‘mouth music’ as a system for teaching repertory by ear

  • Developed playing style and repertory

18th-century Scottish Officier’s Uniform, with Kilt and distinctive tartan

• Wear a leather bag for weaponry and holding pipes

Important Historical Developments in the Spread of Bagpipes and Repertoire

• 18th C: Incorporation into English military practice spread across the world through colonies

• Irish and Scottish diaspora: populations that moved away (spread cultures and beliefs)

• Ireland

  • 16th C: English crown begins settling Protestants in largely Catholic Ireland

  • 18th/19th C: famines drive emigration, esp. To U.S. and Canada

• In the U.S., many Scottish and Irish immigrants become policemen and firemen, bringing their music culture with them

LG 39: Lament for Mary MacLeod

• Genre: pibroch

• Form: set of variations (melodic elaborations, usually with increasing ornamentation) on a ground (basic melody)

Missed notes here bc sick and ran out

Another setting for bagpipe: dancing

• Ceildh (Gaelic: “visit”): musical gathering at house, club, pub

• ‘Set dancing”: 4-8 couples in a rectangle [hence: square dance]

  • England in the 17th/18th C: contra dance (or english country dance)

  • US Square dancing

Ghana: History

1400: settled by the Ga people

1500: Europeon powers set up gold mining and trade outposts

1877: Accra ---> Capital of Brittish colony, the Gold coast

1957: Ghana given independance

Generalizations about african music culture

Music is a part of every day social life

Linked with other activities

Open to all members of community

Use it to stamp mail

Ewe Agbadza ceremony in accra      

accra is an african country

Performers in agbadza

Dancers

Singers

Song leader

Chorus

Perc ensamble

Single style agbadza

Call and responce singing (leader starts)

Percussion style

Poly rhythm

Indian Music: Classic vs. Popular vs. Folk

CLASSICAL

Something that retains value over time, continues through education and traditional is considered classical.

Repertory: usually traditional, written or not

Performers: professionally trained and knowledgeable in how the traditional music should be performed and practiced

Audience: broad, must be somewhere trained to appreciate the classical music

POPULAR

Popular music is what a lot of people like that the moment

Repertory: large and contemporary, often written

Performers: most have training and receive paid profit

Audience: broad, not necessary to know something about the music to enjoy it

FOLK

Made by everyday folk for their own use

Repertory: mostly traditional, usually not written

Performers: not professionals for their own purpose

Audience: the performers themselves or the local population, don’t need to be knowledgeable about the music

Basic Background

Culture: Huge country with multiple languages and ethnicities

Major religion: Hindu majority, muslin minority

History:

-              12^th Century: conquest by Islamic emperors brings culture from near east

-              18^th Century: British colonization

-              1947: Independent democratic nation

Jay Ganesh

"Jay Ganesh" is a popular devotional song (aarti) dedicated to Lord Ganesha, often sung during religious ceremonies and the Ganesh Chaturthi festival. The well-known "Jai Ganesh Deva" is typically set in Dadra Taal, a six-beat rhythm. In Indian classical music, many compositions begin with invocations to Ganesha, highlighting his significance as a patron of the arts.

Bolly wood Indian Hindi Language Film Industry

40s-60s: Imitated Western films of the period with many elaborate scenes with dance and music “numbers”.

Music and dance continue to play a major role in most films (influenced by MTV videos in the 90s)

-              Traditional Indian Music and Costume In Film: Konjum Salangai (60s)

-              Folk Song Becomes Film

Lata Mangeshkar singing song: Thoda Resham Lagta Hai from Jyoti (1981)

Incorporated traditional instruments of Indian culture as well as Western influenced instruments such violins in a sectional style

-              “I am Mum-bhai" from Bombay Boys (1998)

Slightly more contemporary infused music with some traditional Indian influences.

Indian Rap in a sectional style.

-              Size matter

-              Ghandi
- How does music creat meaning

1-       Intimidation of other sounds

a.        Khoomi, flowing water, horse galloping

2-       Association

a.        Dudak associated with armenian identity

3-       Direct link to language

a.        Talking drum

b.        West: statement v question: pitch in melody

-              Division of northern and southern musical traditions

-              North: Hindustani tradition

o   Influenced by persian (muslim) traditions

o   Built largely on long improv

-              South: Carnatic tradition

o   Build on repertoire of Hindu devotional songs

o   Improv reserved for certain sections of pieces

Raga

Describes pitch organization (what indians call scale)

Collection of pitches (svaras)

Set of directional tendencies for moving from 1 pitch to another

have dif ascending and decending patterns

Conventions for where to place ornaments (gamakas)

Many different ragas with individualized significances

associated with time of day, ritual,  or emotional quality (rasa)

solfedge= sargam

pillar tones= perfect 158/ drone tones

Raga nilimbari

1-2-3-4-5-6-7-88-7-5-4-3-2-3—1

Raga is a collection of pitches with rhythm (adi tala)

Pibroch- set of varaitions, often dedicated to commemorate important people

Important family: McCrimmon

Pipers to the chiefs of the McLeod clan, isle of skye

Players and composers

Operated a college of music and piping until 1770

developed mouth music as system for teaching by ear

developed playing style and repertory

Important historical developments in the spread of bagpipe reporitore

18^th c incorpersated into military practice

Irish and scottish diaspora (immagrant)

Hudson Notes

Music and Migration II: spirituals

-              1619 slaves arrive in VA

-              1793 fugitive slave act

-              1850 underground rail

-              Slavery legalized

-              Civil war 1861-65

-              63 emancipation proclamation

-              65 13^th ammendmenmt

-              1896 jim crow

-              Owners prevented slaves from practicing native ulture

-              Spirituals: slaves adapted christianity in their own experience

-              Adopted many tests from exodus

-              Describe better life in heaven

-              First record of slave spirituals: slave songs of the united states (1867)

Late 19^th century spiritual influence

Influence extends beyond plantation prayer meetings

-                white protestant churches

-              Concerts and theatrical performances

o   Fisk university juiblee singers

Instrument Types

• Idiophones: Self-sounding instruments (e.g., gongs, bells, rattles).

• Chordophones: Instruments with vibrating strings, can be plucked, struck, or bowed.

• Aerophones: Instruments that produce sound by vibrating air (e.g., horns, pipes).

• Membranophones: Instruments that use membranes stretched over an opening (e.g., drums).

• Electrophones: Instruments that produce sound electronically.

Sound Characteristics

• Melody: A pattern of pitches performed in linear sequence. Includes dynamics, pitch, and contour.

• Rhythm: The flow of music through time, incorporating regular beats and free rhythms.

• Texture: The relationship between simultaneous sounds.

Cultural Context

• Instruments reflect material culture and regional resources. Travel and technology influence instrument design and availability.

Musical pathways: Ruth Finnegan’s term for everyday musical activities pursued by amateur musicians

Glissando: A musical gesture that entails sliding from one pitch to another

Ternary form: Three-part form

Tonic: Central pitch and, in Western music, the chord based on it

Affinity Community: People who come together by choice to participate in particular activities or forms of music making

Folk Music: A category conventionally applied to styles of music transmitted by oral tradition, maintained in collective memory by a group of people, associated with nonprofessionals, and regarded as the cultural property of a group of people bounded by national, social, or ethnic identity, often called traditional music or vernacular music

Early Music: Music of the European past or its twentieth-century revival

Performance Practice: The manner in which music is interpreted and performed

Accra, Ghana:

Highlife: West African popular music combining indigenous melodies and instruments with the influence of Western rock and jazz

Agbadza: An Ewe dance performed at social gatherings and funerals

Atumpan: Large drums, the central instruments in ensembles used in Asante ceremonies and state occasions

Talking Drums: Membranophones or idiophones that produce pitched tones and can replicate patterns of a tonal language

Mumbai, India:

Bhajan: Hindu devotional songs

Aarati: Traditional Hindu hymn of praise

Sitar: North Indian plucked lute with both played and sympathetic strings

Swaramandal: North Indian zither

Shankh: Indian conch shell

Tanpura: Plucked lute that sounds like a constant drone in South Indian music

Filmi Git: Indian film songs

Playback song/singer: A singer who is prerecorded for use in Indian films

Ghazal: A strophic song sung in Urdu, traditionally performed for elite audiences in Northern India, that has exerted a strong influence on Contemporary Indian film music.

Boston, Massachusetts:

Buskers: Public street performer who collects donations from passerby

Panpipes (Sikus): Aerophone constructed of three or more small pipes fastened together

Ballad: A song genre commemorating important events and individuals, usually in strophic form

Uilleann Pipes: Irish smallpipes with three drones, a keyed chanter, and a bellows to fill the bag

Bodhran: Irish frame drum

Penny whistle: Small Irish aerophone with six finger holes

Fado: Literally, “fate”; a song genre closely associated with Lisbon and popular within Portuguese expatriate communities

Fadista: Singer of the fado

Arpeggio: Technique in Western music when a chord is played one pitch at a time, usually from bottom to top

Rubato: Expressive change through subtle change of tempo

Coladeira: Cape Verdean traditional vocal form with verses and refrain

Cavaquinho: A high pitched strummed and plucked chordophone

Gamelan: A large Indonesian ensemble consisting mainly of metallophones

Colotomic functions: Time-keeping function of gongs in the Indonesian gamelan

Gamelan gong kebyar: See gong kebyar

Circular breathing: Technique for maintaining an unbroken tone on a wind instrument by breathing in through the nose and constantly forcing air out through the mouth

Beating Tones: Acoustical PHenomenon perceived as a shimmering quality when two slightly different pitches are played at the same time

Rhythmic cycle: A repeating rhythmic sequence that may be subdivided in complex and constantly changing ways

Interlocking parts (kotekan): Instrumental or vocal parts in which silences on one part occur simultaneously with sound in another, creating the sense of a single musical line

Polos: First part in Balinese Interlocking parts (koketna)

Angsel: Sudden break following a unison sound in gamelan kebyar music

Folk music revival: Interest in traditional music and dance associated with American counterculture in the 1950s

Tremolo: A regular fluctuation or trembling of a sound, produced by varying the intensity of the sound

Blue note: Lowered third (and sometimes seventh) scale degree in blues and jazz

Broadsides: English or American narrative poem of the sixteenth to nineteenth centuries, printed on one side of a page, generally addressing contemporary events and personalities

Viols: Bowed chordophone used in fifteenth to eighteenth century Europe

General:

Lullaby: Song to lull a baby to sleep

Strophic form: A form in which all verses of text are set to the same melody. Strophic form can include a refrain that is sung between versus

Musical entrainment: Alignment of body motion to music heard

Indian Lullaby:

Raga: The Indian system for organizing melodies according to their distinctive pitch content, ornaments, and range of associations

Raga Nilambari: Indian category of melody associated with lullabies and sleep

Rasa: Emotion associated with a particular Indian Raga

Karnatak Music: Music of South India

Sargam: Indian notation that names the seven main pitches in ascending or descending order

Svara: individual pitch within a raga, identified by position and associated ornaments

Gamaka: Ornament in South Indian music

Vocable: An alternative word for nonsense syllables

Kriti (kirtanam): South INdian devotional song

Tala: An Indian rhythmic framework consisting of time cycles that contain a fixed number of counts

Tanpura: Plucked lute that sounds a constant drone in South Indian music

Mrdangam: South Indian double headed drum

Quinceanera: A traditional Latino celebration marking the passage of fifteen year old girls into adulthood

Mariachi: A Mexican instrumental ensembles that includes the guitarron, vihuela, violin, and trumpets; the musicians in the group

Charro: Mexican cowboy whose fancy dress, associated with the mariachi identity, consists of a sombrero (wide-brimmed hat), a short jacked, a large bow tie, and tight trousers with rows of botonaduras (shiny buttons).

Vihuela: A small, strummed folk guitar, a key instrument in the mariachi ensemble

Guitarron: A plucked lute that has a hollow resonating body with waisted sides, such as the guitarron, Hawaiian steel guitar, ukelele, and vihuela

Bagpipe: An aerophone with one or more drones and a chanter, all attached to an air reservoir, or bag, allowing for uninterrupted sound production

Piob mhor bagpipe: Literally, “great pipes”; the Gaelic name for the great Highland bagpipes

Uilleann pipes: Irish smallpipes with three drones, a keyed chanter, and a bellows to fill the bag

Chanter: Pipe with finger holes on which bagpiper plays melody

Blowpipe: The pipe through which a bagpiper blows to fill the air reservoir, or bag

Drone pipes: Pipes that sound a constant tone but are not fingered

Reeds: A thin stripe of wood, metal, or plastic, that is fixed at one end and free at the other and that produces sound when set into vibration by moving air

Gracings, Grace notes: The practice of inserting grace notes into bagpipe melodies

Doubling: Group of several grace notes in bagpipe music, one of which has the same pitch as the note ornamented

Birl: A quick ornamental figure of two adjacent pitches in bagpipe music

Grip: A quick ornamental figure of two nonadjacent pitches that serves as a set of grace notes in bagpipe music

Canntaireachd: See mouth music

Dydeling: (also spelled diddling) Traditional Irish mouth music

Clip: Ornamented, quick note preceding the main pitch in Irish bagpipe music

Pibroch: A genre of solo bagpipe music that consists of a set of elaborate variations on a theme

Jig: A lively dance tune popular in Ireland and among Irish Americans

Ceilidh: A social or musical event dating back to the eighteenth century and associated with Celtic traditions

Reel: A genre of Scottish and Irish dance music, typically played on a bagpipe

General:
Diaspora: People living outside their historic homeland who maintain memories of, and attachments to, their place of origin

Oral Transmission: Music transmitted without writing

Written Transmission: The use of a system of music writing

Chinese Migration: A process of migration in which immigrants follow extended personal and familial networks to a particular community

Muyu: A genre of traditional Chinese vocal music whose texts deal with the concerns of everyday life, performed by men or women in public or private. Also spelled as mu’yu or muk’yu

Cadence: A melodic or harmonic figure, typically at the end of a phrase or piece, that creates a sense of repose or resolution

Fixed Form: A musical form in which aspects of its content are predetermined

Syllabic Text-Setting: Vocal music in which each syllable of text is sung to one pitch

Melismatic text-setting: Vocal music in which each syllable of the text is sung to many pitches

Arab migration from the Middle East:

Mawwal: Traditional Arab song that alternates sections in free and regular rhythm

Maqam: The system governing pitch and melody in Arab music

‘Ud: Plucked five-stringed Middle Eastern lute with a short neck and a large body with a rounded back

Qanun: A Middle Eastern trapezoidal zither with twenty-six sets of three strings, played polyphonically with plectra attached to the index fingers of both hands

Plectrum: A small piece of hard material such as horn, shell, or plastic, used to pluck a stringed instrument

Offbeat: A pitch that occurs after a metrically strong beat

Duple Meter: A grouping, or measure of two beats

African American Migration

Spiritual: A genre of songs, usually with verses and a refrain, that emerged from the musical expression of African American slaves converted to New World Christianity

Call-and-Response: A performance practice in which a leader makes a musical statement and another performer (or group of performers) responds with a musical answer

Quadruple meter: Rhythmic organization based on groupings, or measures, or four beats

Vietnamese Migration

Dan bau: A vietnamese zither with a pitch-bending bar

Dan Tranh: A Vietnamese sixteen-stringed zither

Dan Nhi: A Vietnamese two-stringed lute

Phach: Vietnamese time period of one beat marked by striking a bamboo block

Song Cycle: A group of songs that are composed as a set, sometimes because they have texts by the same poet or are connected thematically in some other way

Tan Nhac: A Vietnamese popular song tradition of the French colonial period that used Western instruments and Vietnamese lyrics, and occasionally drew on Vietnamese folk melodies

Ho: A Vietnamese work song

Modulation: The process by which music moves from one key or scale type to another

Countermelody: A melody that contrasts with a main melody, or tune, played at the same time