Introduction to the State

The concept of the state is central in political and international studies. Geertz (1980) describes the state as the "master noun of modern political discourse". Political studies analyze how power is exercised within states; international studies focus on relations between states. In comparative politics, the state is the "standard unit of analysis" (Hague, Harrop & McCormick, 2016). This document will explore definitions and the emergence of the state, with a focus on African examples.

Historical Context: Pre-State Political Orders

2.1 Stateless Societies

Stateless or acephalous societies distribute power horizontally, with no dominant authority. An example is the Nuer people of South Sudan, who rely on a complex system of kinship and social norms to maintain order and resolve conflicts. The San of Southern Africa also exemplify such structures, with their social organization based on communal living and shared responsibilities. In these societies, leadership is informal and often situational, arising from consensus and mutual respect rather than centralized power (Evans-Pritchard, 1940).

2.2 City-States

City-states are small, self-governing entities that were particularly prominent in Ancient Greece. Each city acted as a separate state with its own rules and governance, often engaging in trade and warfare with neighboring city-states. The political structure of these city-states allowed for direct citizen participation in governance, distinguishing them from larger territorial states. Examples include Athens and Sparta, which showcased differing models of democracy and oligarchy, respectively.

2.3 Empires

Empires exercise authority over larger territories without strict borders, often incorporating diverse peoples and cultures. The Kingdom of the Kongo (1390-1914) serves as a historical example, where a centralized authority coexisted with local rulers, and trade networks were established across vast regions. Empires often utilized a combination of military strength, economic influence, and cultural assimilation to maintain control over their territories (Okafor, 2000).

Defining the State

The state is difficult to define; Young (1994) calls it "elusive and complex". Hague, Harrop & McCormick (2016) outline four key features of a contemporary state:

• Population: A state requires inhabitants who contribute to its social fabric.

• Territory: A defined geographical area is crucial for a state's existence and governance.

• Government: An authority makes rules and enforces them, reflecting the capacity for organized political administration.

• Sovereignty: The state must have the capacity to enter relations with other states, inherently possessing the autonomy to govern itself.

The Montevideo Convention (1933) provides these characteristics but emphasizes that recognition by others is critical for functioning as a state. Without acknowledgment from the international community, a state may struggle to exercise its sovereignty effectively.

The Emergence of the Modern State

4.1 Historical Development

Modern states emerged in Europe between the 15th and 19th centuries, influenced by factors like the rise of capitalism, the development of the nation-state concept, and the fall of feudal systems. The competitive environment for territory led to organized warfare, with states consolidating power and forming national identities (Tilly, 1985). This period witnessed a decrease in the number of states due to the centralization of authority (Tilly, 1990).

4.2 Impact of Colonialism on African States

In Africa, pre-colonial political units were diverse, including stateless societies, kingdoms, and empires. The Berlin Conference (1884-1885) established arbitrary colonial borders that ignored existing socio-cultural divisions, leading to ethnic tensions. By the 1960s, many African nations gained independence; however, the artificial nature of the borders imposed during colonialism persisted, affecting national unity and governance structures in the post-colonial period.

Statehood Beyond Africa

The European model of statehood spread globally through colonialism, influencing Asia and the Americas too. The proliferation of nation-states often came at the cost of indigenous governance structures. As of early 2022, the United Nations recognizes 193 member states, with ongoing disputes over the legitimacy and recognition of various claims to statehood continuing across the globe.

Challenges of Statehood

6.1 Disputes over Sovereignty

In many regions, areas may have competing authorities claiming governance, such as Somaliland's quest for recognition independent of Somalia. The international community typically hesitates to recognize such secessionist movements, complicating the political landscape.

6.2 Failed States and State Functionality

Various terms exist for underperforming states, including failed, weak, and collapsed states. Dunn (2001) argues against labeling states negatively, asserting the importance of recognizing diverse forms of state functionality. Understanding the varying degrees of state effectiveness is crucial in analyzing political developments and power dynamics.

6.3 The Role of the State

Expectations on state roles vary widely: Classical Liberals argue for minimal state intervention, advocating for individual freedoms and free markets. Social Democrats, in contrast, favor extensive state involvement in the economy and society to ensure the provision of social goods and welfare.

Conclusion

The comparative politics of today focus on states and their interactions. Understanding the historical context of state formation reveals significant differences in state functions and identities across regions. Acknowledging the complexities of statehood is essential for engaging with contemporary political phenomena and fostering international relationships.

Further Reading

• Dunn, K.C. (2001). "MadLib #32: The (Blank) African State" in Africa’s Challenge to International Relations Theory.

• Evans-Pritchard, E.E. (1940). The Nuer: A Description of Modes of Livelihood and Political Institutions.

• Geertz, C. (1980). Negara: The Theatre State in Nineteenth-Century Bali.

• Hague, R., Harrop, M., and McCormick, J. (2016). Comparative Politics and Government: An Introduction, 10th ed.

• Hall, J.A. (2015). "Varieties of State Experience" in The Oxford Handbook of Transformations of the State.

• Herbst, J. (2000). States and Power in Africa: Comparative Lessons in Authority and Control.

• Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of States (1933).

• Okafor, O.C. (2000). Redefining Legitimate Statehood in Africa.

• Tilly, C. (1990). Coercion, Capital, and European States.

• Young, C. (1994). The African Colonial State in Comparative Perspective.