AP World | Chapter 34 | An Age of Anxiety

Chapter 34 An Age of Anxiety

Postwar Pessimism

  • Lost Generation
      - Term coined by Gertrude Stein to describe writers disillusioned after WWI.

  • Disillusionment After WWI
      - Widespread skepticism about the prospects for human progress due to the horrors of war.

  • Pessimism Over Idea of Human Progress
      - Oswald Spengler's Decline of the West illustrates a belief that civilizations are doomed to decline rather than improve.

New Visions in Physics

  • Albert Einstein (1879–1955)
      - Formulated the Theory of Special Relativity: events and perceptions of time and space are contingent upon the observer's state of motion, suggesting neither time nor space exists as absolute values.

  • Werner Heisenberg (1901–1976)
      - Introduced The Uncertainty Principle, which indicates that certain pairs of physical properties, like position and momentum, cannot both be precisely known at the same time.

  • Impact Beyond Physics: These revolutionary concepts permeated humanities and social sciences, influencing perceptions of reality and knowledge.

New Visions in Psychology

  • Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)
      - Focused on the subconscious mind, introducing crucial concepts such as:
        - Repression: the act of suppressing desires and fears that are socially unacceptable.
        - Interpretation of Dreams: a key method for exploring the workings of the subconscious.
        - Free Association: a technique in which patients speak freely to reveal their inner thoughts.

  • Broader Applications: Freud's theories were applied to mythology, religion, literature, and art, reshaping the understanding of human experience.

Experimentation in Art

  • Reflection on War: The horrors of World War I emerged as a thematic departure for artists.

  • Impact of Photography: As photography captured realism, traditional forms of artistic representation became less relevant.

  • Art as Creation, Not Reproduction: A shift towards imaginative and abstract expressions in art.
      - Les Fauves: A group of early 20th-century avant-garde painters known for their use of vivid color.
      - Pablo Picasso (1881–1973): One of the pioneering figures in modern art, known for Cubism and his extensive experimentation.

  • Disappearance of Art Distinctions: The clear boundary between “good” and “bad” art began to fade, leading to diverse styles and interpretations.

The Great Depression

  • Economic Foundations: Post-WWI financial dependencies established a precarious economic condition:
      - Austria and Germany borrowed money from the U.S. to settle wartime debts owed to France and England.
      - France and England relied on these payments to repay their debts to the U.S. for costs incurred during the war.

  • U.S. Involvement: The entire economic system heavily depended on the flow of cash from the U.S.

  • Investors Withdrew Capital: Concerned investors began pulling their funds out in 1928, triggering an economic downfall.

New Technologies and the Great Depression

  • Impact on Single-export Countries: Countries heavily reliant on a single exported commodity were drastically affected by technological advancements such as:
      - Reclaimed Rubber: The invention and use of synthetic rubber put traditional rubber economies in places like the Dutch East Indies, Malaysia, and Ceylon at risk.

Agricultural Surpluses and the Great Depression

  • Overproduction in the 1920s: Advances in farming and machinery led to unprecedented agricultural production.
      - Strong harvests recorded in 1925 and 1929.

  • Wheat Prices: Prices dropped to the lowest levels in 400 years, devastating farmer income.

  • Effects of Decreased Demand: The decline in agricultural income reduced the demand for manufactured goods, resulting in significant inventory surpluses across industries.

The Crash of 1929

  • Black Thursday: On October 24, 1929, the stock market crashed dramatically.
      - Stock Purchases on Margin: Investors bought stocks with borrowed money (only needing 3% deposits).

  • Early Signs of Economic Slowdown: Hints of financial issues in Europe prompted investors to start selling stocks.

  • Snowball Effect: The market collapse ostracized investors, leading to widespread financial ruin.
      - Many lost their life savings; notable was the occurrence of eleven known suicides.

Economic Contraction Spreads

  • Avalanche of Layoffs: Surpluses led to job cuts, resulting in decreased consumer spending and further business failures.
      - By 1932, U.S. industrial production was at only half of 1929 levels.
      - Banking Crisis: Approximately 44% of U.S. banks were out of business by this time, exacerbating the financial crisis, with deposits lost.

World Economic Collapse

  • Countries Most Affected: Those heavily reliant on exporting manufactured goods faced extreme hardships.
      - Particularly hard hit: Japan and single-export countries in South America suffered significant economic despair.

Despair and Government Action

  • U.S. Policy Changes: Government intervention using the strategy of “planned scarcity” led to the destruction of agricultural produce (vegetables, fruits, and animals).
      - Literature Response: John Steinbeck's The Grapes of Wrath powerfully depicted the struggles faced by individuals during this crisis.

Economic Experimentation

  • Failures of Traditional Approaches: both laissez-faire and “planned scarcity” models were ineffective.

  • John Maynard Keynes (1883–1946): Advocated for economic stimulation through monetary policy:
      - Suggesting the lowering of interest rates to encourage investment and employment.

  • The New Deal: Franklin Delano Roosevelt's economic recovery program, which aimed to counteract the effects of the Great Depression.

  • Military Spending Impact: WWII spending also played a crucial role in economic recovery.

Communism in Russia

  • Bolshevik Revolution (October/November 1917): A pivotal moment where the Bolsheviks took control following the October Revolution.

  • Civil War (1918–1920): Resulted in contested power and the Red Terror campaign.
      - Notable Actions: The execution of the last Tsar and the defeat of the White Army by the Red Army in 1920.

War Communism (1918–1922)

  • Economic Policies: Rapid collectivization and significant confiscations led to severe unpopularity.
      - Lenin reverted his policies with the introduction of the New Economic Policy (NEP) in 1921, allowing for partial privatization of the economy.

The New Economic Policy

  • Restoration of Market Economy: Temporarily reintroduced elements of capitalism, permitting peasants to sell surplus produce at free market prices.

  • Infrastructure Initiatives: Focused on electrification and the establishment of technical schools.

  • Lenin’s Health Decline: Suffered three strokes and died in 1924, setting off a bitter power struggle among Bolshevik leaders.

Joseph Stalin (1879–1953)

  • Background: Georgian origins and influence of his mother led to a seminary education.

  • Political Ascendancy: Outmaneuvered his rivals in the party to become the Leader of the Soviet Union by 1928, adopting a policy of "Socialism in One Country."

Stalin and Industrialization

  • First Five-Year Plan: Instituted by Gosplan aiming at rapid industrialization.

  • Collectivization of Agriculture: Enforced policies targeting kulaks (wealthy peasants), leading to significant social unrest and famine.
      - Collectivization officially halted in 1931 with Stalin proclaiming its success contrary to on-ground realities.

The Great Purge

  • Political Repression (1935-1938): Marked by the “Congress of Victors” and “Congress of Victims,” Stalin conducted a purge of perceived opposition.
      - Removal of a significant portion of the Central Committee and high-ranking army officers; many faced execution or imprisonment in labor camps.
      - Approximately 1.5 million people were detained, with 681,692 executed.

The Fascist Alternative

  • Origins and Symbolism: Fascism derives its name from ‘fasces’, an ancient Roman symbol of authority, featuring an axe encompassed by wooden rods.

  • Foundation by Benito Mussolini: Established in Italy, with fascism subsequently influencing other regions, including Europe, Asia, and Latin America.

Common Elements of Fascism

  • Characterized by:
      - Primacy of the State: Individuals subsumed under state interests.
      - Devotion to a Leader: A strong charismatic figure.
      - Ethnocentric Views: Prioritization of national or ethnic identity over others.
      - Militaristic Nature: Focus on armed strength and aggression.
      - Anti-communist Sentiments: Opposition to communist ideology.
      - Chauvinism and Xenophobia: Promotion of national superiority and hostility towards outsiders.

Italian Fascism

  • Post-WWI Discontent: The government’s inadequate territorial gains and socio-economic turmoil led to public disappointment.

  • Rise of Mussolini: Former newspaper editor who garnered electoral success by 1921, capitalizing on societal chaos.
      - March on Rome (October 1921): A key event that resulted in Mussolini being offered the prime ministership by King Emmanuel III.
      - Seizure of Power: By 1926, Mussolini declared himself Il Duce (“the Leader”) and consolidated power.

Adolf Hitler (1889–1945) and the Nazi Party

  • Nazi Leadership: Became chairman of the National Socialist German Workers’ Party in 1921.

  • Attempted Coup (1923): Briefly imprisoned for trying to overthrow the government, where he penned Mein Kampf.

  • Exploiting Public Discontent: Capitalized on grievances including the war guilt clause, reparations, and societal disarray; promoted anti-Semitic ideologies.

Consolidation of Power

  • Political Strategy: By the early 1930s, the Nazis emerged as the largest party in the Reichstag.

  • Appointment as Chancellor: Weak president Paul von Hindenburg appointed Hitler as chancellor, leading to a clampdown on opposition.

  • Constitutional Abrogation: The Nazis suppressed civil rights, eliminating trade unions and purging perceived enemies from judiciary positions.

The Racial State

  • Ideological Foundations: Nazi theories centered on racial superiority and purity led to:
      - Pronatalist Propaganda: Policies encouraging higher birth rates among “pure” Aryans.
      - Eugenics Policies: Enforced compulsory sterilization of approximately 30,000 individuals deemed “hereditary ill,” while mandating abortions for those identified as “racial aliens.”
      - Euthanasia Program: Resulted in the death of 200,000 individuals with physical or mental disabilities from 1939 to 1945, foreshadowing the Holocaust.

Anti-Semitism

  • Racial and Religious Theories: Combined ideologies founded on biological racial theories and historical religious persecution to justify discrimination against Jews.

  • Nuremberg Laws (1935): Legislation implementing severe social and economic restrictions on Jews, including:
      - Marriage Prohibitions: Ban on marriages between Jews and non-Jews.
      - Removal from Public Sectors: Exclusion from civil service and educational institutions.
      - Economic Liquidation: Forced liquidation or transfer of Jewish businesses to non-Jewish ownership.

  • Kristallnacht (November 9-10, 1938): A widespread pogrom against Jews, termed the “Night of Broken Glass,” signifying the escalated violence against Jewish communities in Germany.