Chapter 1 Notes: Developing a Global Perspective, Primary Sources, and Causation in History
1.1 Developing a Global Perspective
Purpose of this section: cultivate a global perspective on history and introduce how the course and text will help you learn.
Key aims:
Identify the role history plays in higher education.
Discuss how studying history builds skills for lifelong learning and success (e.g., critical thinking, analysis, evidence-based reasoning).
Explain how the features of this OpenStax text optimize your learning experience (e.g., use of primary sources, visuals, and critical questions).
Visual cue: Figure 1.1 and mapping as a scaffold for global scope. Note that maps reflect the maker’s perception of geographical realities, not just objective geography.
Real-world relevance: understanding different world regions, cultures, and historical processes helps you engage with contemporary global challenges.
1.2 Primary Sources
What you should be able to do with primary sources:
Identify different types of primary sources.
Analyze primary sources in a historical context.
Interpret primary sources effectively to support historical arguments.
Visuals illustrating primary sources:
Figure 1.4 Exterior of Hagia Sophia: architectural features such as domes and arches; early engineering challenges and the durability that made Hagia Sophia a marvel of its time.
Figure 1.5 Interior of Hagia Sophia: Greek Christian iconography (halos) and lavish gold mosaics showing Mary and the child Jesus, with emperors Justinian and Constantine.
Figure 1.6 Hagia Sophia’s Minarets: four minarets added about a thousand years after construction; minarets as towers from which the Muslim call to prayer is issued.
Figure 1.7 Hagia Sophia’s Many Influences: Muslim claim to heirs of Judaism and Christianity; early Greek iconography visible in the interior; medallions with Arabic writing now cover some iconography during prayer.
Evaluating primary sources (Figure 1.8): key questions to ask about primary sources to assess author, audience, intent, and context.
Dueling Voices: The Spanish Arrival in the Aztec Capital (primary sources as case studies):
Cortés, Second Letter to Charles V: excerpted elements include
He traveled from Cempoal (which he renamed Sevilla) on the 16th of August with fifteen horse and three hundred infantry, prepared for war, aiming to see Moteczuma (Moctezuma).
He claimed to have reduced the province and towns, maintaining peace and allegiance to the crown, and sought to protect them from a tyrant who used violent measures and sacrifices.
He describes the strategic seizure of the Aztec capital and the submission of local peoples as subjects to the Spanish crown.
Miguel LeĂłn-Portilla, The Broken Spears: The Aztec Account of the Conquest of Mexico: response from the Aztec perspective, including
Motecuhzoma’s response to Spaniards and the city’s interior events during the initial contact.
The massacre in the Sacred Patio: Spaniards killed musicians, dancers, spectators; actions against the Aztec elite, and the escalation into war.
The Aztec account emphasizes the violence and treachery perceived in the Spanish actions, including the deaths of Motecuhzoma, Itzcohuatzin, Nezahualquentzin, and the king of Nauhtla.
Why these sources matter:
They illustrate how different authors frame events depending on their position (victors vs. vanquished) and purposes.
They provide a basis for discussing bias, perspective, audience, and intent in historical writing.
Discussion questions (Page 15):
To whom is each author writing?
How do the authors’ differing intentions affect what they wrote?
One author was on the side of the victorious and one among the vanquished. How does this context affect the tone of the writing?
Historical artifact-focused learning: these sources invite you to compare and contrast experiences and to consider how power dynamics shape historical narratives.
1.3 Causation and Interpretation in History
Core ideas:
Causation in history involves identifying and analyzing the factors that bring about historical events.
Understanding causation requires recognizing multiple levels of causation and the interplay between them.
Interpretation matters: producing an accurate historical record depends on recognizing bias, perspective, and the availability of evidence.
Levels of causation (Figure 1.11):
The chart answers the question, "Why are you reading?" on three levels. The primary level is the most immediate.
In this framework, causation is not a single force but a set of layered reasons that operate at different scales and times.
Applying causation to major historical events (Figures 1.12 and 1.13):
World War II (Figure 1.12): Causation chart identifies and ranks reasons for the United States entering World War II. The reasons are presented in a hierarchical or weighted manner to show which factors were most influential.
The Conquest of Constantinople (Figure 1.13): Causation chart ranks the reasons for Mehmed II’s 1453 Ottoman conquest, illustrating how multiple causes converge to produce a pivotal event.
Dueling Voices within historiography (transition to historiography):
Carlyle’s Great Man theory (Lecture on Heroes): Universal history is the history of great men who act as the driving force behind events; they serve as the source of energy and inspiration for historical change.
Tolstoy’s critique in War and Peace (Dueling Voices): In historical events, the will of the general mass of people is the fundamental driver; the actions of individuals are shaped and constrained by larger social laws and collective forces.
The contrast highlights a central historiographical debate: is history driven primarily by extraordinary individuals or by the patterns and structures that affect many people?
Discussion prompts (Page 30):
Which kind of history do you prefer: the “great man” approach or the “everyone” approach? Why?
Whose argument is more convincing, Carlyle’s or Tolstoy’s? Why?
Trends in historical thought (Figure 1.14):
Historical thinking has evolved from the progressive school of interpretation to contemporary fields such as intellectual history and social history.
This reflects a broadening of focus from grand narratives of leaders to more nuanced analyses of ideas, cultures, and everyday life.
In Their Own Words: Roosevelt’s Day of Infamy
Figure 1.9: Pearl Harbor under Attack (visual context): Photo captured from a Japanese plane on December 7, 1941, illustrating the surprise assault on the U.S. fleet at Pearl Harbor.
Roosevelt’s Day of Infamy (Two-part excerpt):
Part 1 (Speech opening and framing):
"Yesterday, December 7th, 1941—a date which will live in infamy—the United States of America was suddenly and deliberately attacked by naval and air forces of the Empire of Japan."
The U.S. was at peace with Japan and seeking peaceful negotiations; the attack was planned in advance, with deceit in diplomatic communications.
The attack caused severe damage to American naval and military forces; some ships were torpedoed.
Part 2 (Escalation and global scope):
Japan attacked Malaya, Hong Kong, Guam, the Philippine Islands, Wake Island, and Midway Island; the offensive extended across the Pacific.
The President and Commander in Chief pledges defense and seeks a united national response; hostilities are ongoing and grave threats exist.
Part 3 (Call to Congress and resolve):
The President asks Congress to declare a state of war between the United States and the Japanese Empire; emphasizes will, resolve, and unity in pursuit of victory.
Discussion prompts (Page 20):
What message did Roosevelt aim to convey to the nation and the world?
What word choices did he use to convey this message?
The Past Meets the Present: Chinua Achebe on Indigenous History
Figure 1.10: Chinua Achebe (1966) – a visual reference to the author.
Achebe’s reflection on indigenous history and cross-cultural resonance:
He explains that the book Things Fall Apart had resonance not only within Igbo culture but also with people elsewhere who faced colonization in different forms (e.g., Korea under Japanese colonization).
He recalls hearing from a class of a girls’ college in South Korea who connected with the themes of dispossession and colonization, illustrating that other histories can speak to universal human experiences.
The takeaway: people from different parts of the world can relate to historical narratives that speak to their own histories and experiences, highlighting the value of Indigenous histories in global contexts.
Discussion prompts (Page 23):
Sum up Chinua Achebe’s words in one sentence.
How might colonialism have influenced the writing of history?
Figure 1.8 Evaluating Primary Sources (recap)
Key questions to ask about primary sources to evaluate author, audience, intent, and context.
Figures and Visual Cues (contextual references)
Figure 1.1 The Whole World: 17th-century projection map; reflects the maker’s perception of geographical realities.
Figure 1.2 Do You Have These Skills? Employer-valued skills for 2025 (World Economic Forum): examples include innovative inquiry and creative thinking; course aims to develop these skills by immersion in historical inquiry.
Figure 1.3 Eleanor Roosevelt with UDHR: role in drafting the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) in 1949.
Figure 1.4–1.7 Hagia Sophia series: exterior, interior iconography, and later minarets; illustrate the blending of Christian and Muslim influences over time.
Figure 1.8 Evaluating Primary Sources: questions frame analysis.
Figure 1.9 Pearl Harbor image (1941): historical moment prompting U.S. entry into World War II.
Figure 1.11 Causation Explained: three levels of causation; primary level is most immediate.
Figure 1.12 Causation Applied to World War II: ranked reasons for U.S. entry into WWII.
Figure 1.13 Causation Applied to the Conquest of Constantinople: ranked reasons for Mehmed II’s conquest in 1453.
Figure 1.14 Trends in Historical Thought: progression from the Progressive Era to intellectual and social history.
Quick references to key dates and numbers (LaTeX-ready)
OpenStax, UDHR adopted: 1949.
World War II onset and Pearl Harbor: 1941; date referenced: 7 \, \text{December} \, 1941.
Mehmmed II’s conquest of Constantinople: 1453.
Hagia Sophia minarets added roughly 1000 years after initial construction.
Moteczuma and the Aztec events described in Cortés’s letters reference dates around the late 15th century (Cempoal renamed Sevilla on the 16th of August; the entry occurs in the 16th century, circa 1519 for many historical timelines, though exact dates are not all specified here).
Motecuhzoma and related events in León-Portilla’s account include several specific moments such as the Sacred Patio massacre lasting approximately 3 hours.
Achebe’s Things Fall Apart context includes the mid-20th century publication and contemporaneous historical parallels (e.g., Korean colonial history).
These dates and figures illustrate how historians use multiple layers of causation and interpretation to connect specific events to broader historical patterns.
Developing a Global Perspective (1.1)
The purpose is to cultivate a global perspective on history, understanding its role in higher education, and exploring how studying history builds lifelong learning skills such as critical thinking, analysis, and evidence-based reasoning.
Learning is optimized through features like primary sources, visuals, and critical questions.
Maps reflect the maker’s perception of geographical realities, not just objective geography.
Understanding different world regions, cultures, and historical processes is crucial for engaging with contemporary global challenges.
Primary Sources (1.2)
Key skills involve identifying, analyzing in historical context, and interpreting different types of primary sources effectively to support historical arguments.
When evaluating primary sources, it's essential to ask key questions about the author, audience, intent, and context.
Different authors frame events based on their position (victors vs. vanquished) and purposes, illustrating bias, perspective, audience, and intent in historical writing.
Causation and Interpretation in History (1.3)
Core Ideas:
Causation involves identifying and analyzing the factors that bring about historical events, recognizing multiple levels of causation and their interplay.
Interpretation is crucial for producing an accurate historical record, requiring recognition of bias, perspective, and the availability of evidence.
Levels of Causation:
Causation is not a single force but a set of layered reasons that operate at different scales and times, including proximate, intermediate, and underlying causes.
Historiography:
Carlyle’s Great Man theory: Universal history is driven by great men who are the source of energy and inspiration for historical change.
Tolstoy’s critique: In historical events, the will of the general mass of people is the fundamental driver; individual actions are shaped by larger social laws and collective forces.
This contrast highlights the debate on whether history is driven by extraordinary individuals or by patterns and structures affecting many people.
Trends in Historical Thought: Historical thinking has evolved from the progressive school to contemporary fields like intellectual history (focus on ideas) and social history (focus on ordinary people, social structures, and everyday life).
Roosevelt’s Day of Infamy
On 7 ext{ December } 1941, the United States was suddenly and deliberately attacked by Japan at Pearl Harbor while seeking peaceful negotiations.
The attack caused severe damage and was part of a broader Japanese offensive across the Pacific.
President Roosevelt sought a declaration of war from Congress, emphasizing a united national response and resolve for victory.
Chinua Achebe on Indigenous History
Indigenous histories, such as depicted in Things Fall Apart, possess cross-cultural resonance, speaking to universal human experiences like dispossession and colonization.
This highlights the value of Indigenous histories in providing insights that can connect people from different parts of the world to shared human experiences.
Quick references to key dates and numbers
OpenStax, UDHR adopted: 1949 (with Eleanor Roosevelt playing a pivotal role in its drafting, as referenced in Figure 1.3).
World War II onset and Pearl Harbor: 1941; specifically, the "Day of Infamy" attack on Pearl Harbor occurred on 7 \text{ December } 1941. This event, a surprise assault by Japanese naval and air forces, led to the immediate U.S. entry into World War II, as detailed in President Roosevelt's speech excerpts.
Mehmed II’s Ottoman conquest of Constantinople: 1453. This pivotal event, as shown in Figure 1.13, involved multiple converging causes leading to the fall of the Byzantine capital.
Hagia Sophia minarets added roughly 1000 years after initial construction (Figures 1.4-1.7). These additions symbolize the architectural and cultural transformation of the structure following the Ottoman conquest.
Moteczuma and the Aztec events described in Cortés’s letters reference dates around the early 16th century (Cempoal renamed Sevilla on the 16th of August; the entry into the Aztec capital occurred circa 1519). Miguel León-Portilla’s account, The Broken Spears, provides the Aztec perspective, highlighting events such as the Sacred Patio massacre, which lasted approximately 3 hours.
Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart (Figure 1.10) was published in the mid-20th century, with its themes of dispossession and colonization resonating with contemporaneous historical parallels, such as Korean colonial history.
These dates and figures illustrate how historians use multiple layers of causation and interpretation to connect specific events to broader historical patterns.