Topic 1: Causes and Events of Exploration

Trade Routes to Asia

Environment

Trade routes in Mediterranean and Red Seas → Connected Europeans to other parts othe world, specifically Asia

Demand for sugar was strong and increasing → Portugal and Italy established sugar plantation on Atlantic Islands

Need for basic resources and land for farming

European regions were in demand for Asian products and services, but Bubonic plague decreased the viability of the Silk Roads. Because of this, Europeans wanted to develop routes to Asia through other means.

Culture

Islamic and Chinese cultures encouraged education and innovation as a part of their major belief systems (Islam and Confucianism)

European states were Christians who supported the belief of spreading their religion through travel

• New Testament pushed for Christians to spread their religion

• Wanted to diminish the prevalence of Islam

  • Conversion efforts from Islam to Christianity

  • Used violence to expand religion known as the crusades

  • Prince Henry wanted to join with other Christians and find a way to defeat Muslims and take away their power

• Catholic church is looking for new followers and were expanding their religion beyond Europe

  • Protestant Reformation lost followers, and therefore they needed more

  • Jesuit missionaries spread Catholic religion

Political/Governance

Italian port city-states had monopoly on trade profits coming into Europe led to the desire to come up with new technologies and access to trade

State-sponsored exploration: governments in Europe direct and pay for an exploration

• European states wanted to increase their power and influence (control) over resources, commercial routes, and vast empires

• Exploration was also often too expensive without state sponsors

Mercantilism: Wanting to minimize flow of precious materials

• Gold and silver competition and rivalries between European states

• Heavy government involvement

Economic

Want for profit:

• Went to Americas in search for gold/silver because it was profitable

• Entering gold trade in Africa

• Usage of slaves to grow wealthy

Wanted direct access to Asian markets without Muslims as middle man who were in control of most trade routes to Asia from Europe → increase quantity of goods and spices, yielding profit

Technology and Innovation

Gained accurate knowledge on geography and wind currents

Wanted to find a Northeast passage that was faster than traveling around Southeast Asia

The Compass:

• Originated in China, as early as Han Dynasty

• Improved navigation and allowed explorers to know cardinal directions, even at night or in cloudy wealth

The Astrolabe:

• Developed in classical Greece, improved by Muslims

• Allowed explorers to determine how far north or south they are in relation to equator

Lateen Sails:

• Developed by Muslims for Indian Ocean trade

• Allowed ships to switch directions easier and could increase speed and distance traveled

Innovative ship designed produced in Europe

• Caraval, developed by the Portuguese

  • Small and fast

  • Could carry large loads

  • Combination of square and triangle sails

• Fluyt, developed by the Dutch

  • Specifically designed for trade instead of military use

  • Did not need many people to operate, decreasing number of crew required

  • Fast but also carry large loads of goods

Topic 2: Columbian Exchange

At the end of the last Ice Age, the Eastern and Western Hemisphere were isolated from each other until 1492. Thus, biological exchanges after Columbus would have a major impact on both regions.

• Western Hemisphere: The Americas

• Eastern Hemisphere: Europe, Asia, Africa

Afro-Eurasia were very connected through trade networks, but the Americas were isolated and did not have any contact with each other until 1492. In 1492, Columbus connects the western and eastern hemisphere by “discovering” the New World.

Columbian Exchange: Biological exchanges from hemisphere to hemisphere, old world to new world, including plants, animals, disease, and human population.

• Not a trade network (goods were not traded)

• Major effects on each region

Europe (Old World)

New crops, such as potatoes, sweet potatoes, maize, tomatoes, and cassava were exchanged from the Americas led to population growth and increasing urbanization

• Potatoes and other American crops could be grown in harsh conditions

  • Potatoes: Ireland grew potatoes that could withstand freezing temperature, and land no one through was useful could now be used

• Growth in population: especially after the population decline from the Bubonic plague, new crops improved diet and cuisine

  • Improved nutrition (more calories and carbohydrates)

  • Expanded the life span

Tobacco: quickly and widely spread and integrated into Europe and Islamic cultures

Medicinal plants, derived from the Peruvian Cinchona tree from the Americas that allowed for the development of the first effective treatment for malaria

Americas (New World)

Spread of disease: Diseases originated from Afro-Eurasia where people already had resistance to those diseases and therefore did not impact as greatly than it did to those in the Americas were were never exposed to the diseases (ex. smallpox, measles, diphtheria, whooping cough, influenza)

• People in the Americas suffered many epidemics the decreased Indigenous American population rapidly

  • Estimated 50-90% mortality across the entire region

  • If disease had not wiped out Indigenous Americans, it is likely that Europeans would not have been able to use American lands large-scale for their own purposes

  • Forests regrew and animals flourished due to the large population decline

• Decrease in labor due to death from diseases contributed to the rise of Atlantic slave trade

Europeans brought domesticated animals such as horses, cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs from Afro-Eurasia

• Prior to this, Indigenous Americans did not have large domesticated animals that could be used similar to the domesticated animals in Europe

• Horses made buffalo hunting more efficient for native peoples

• Cattle became important for meat, tallow, hid, and transportation in Indigenous American society

Wheat, barley, rye, rice, sugar, bananas, citrus, apples, cherries, peaches, peas, etc. came to the Americas from Europe

• Wheat thrived as staple crop and was exported in large quantities back to Europe

• Cash crops were used to make profit, especially sugar

  • Sugar plantations became centers of forced labor systems such as the slave trade due to the large amount of work needed

• Growth of world’s population due to better nutrition

Asia (Old World)

Nutritional foods from the Americas such as potatoes, corn, and sweet potatoes helped spur population growth in China

• New food crops such as maize grew in eco-niches unsuitable for rice and millet and allowed agriculture in previously unused lands

• Increased food supply and supported population growth

Tobacco from America led to the addiction to tobacco → Traveled from Europe, Islamic empire, and Asia

Africa (Old World)

Crop from America including maize, manioc, and peanuts allowed overall population increase

• American crops were spread throughout Africa, especially manioc because of its conventionality when farming and supported Africa’s growing population

• Allowed crops to disperse to other regions, and supplemented food supply while creating connections

Topic 3: European Maritime Empires (Causes and Effects)

Context

Mercantilism: an economic policy based on the belief that a nation’s wealth and power were best served by increasing exports (more exports than imports of foreign goods) and accumulating as much wealth as possible (in gold and silver). The wealth of one nation was gained at the expense of others.  Colonies played an important role by providing raw materials that the European monarchies could not produce. These materials were then sent back to Europe, where they were processed into finished goods. Mercantilist competition encouraged European countries to secure exclusive access to luxury trade goods, such as spices, sugar, and gold, by establishing colonies & trading posts, and controlling trade routes. The belief was that controlling more colonies and trade would make a country more powerful, while limiting access to those resources by rival nations would weaken competitors.

Trading Post Empire (Portuguese, Dutch, English): The main goal of European trade empires was to influence and control trade to increase commercial profits. While trading empires controlled and conquered some land, controlling large territories and populations was not the primary purpose. Instead, trade empires consisted of European-controlled ports built along the African and Asian coastlines. Europeans sometimes negotiated with local rulers for the land on which they built their trading posts. Other times, they took the land by force.

Colonies/Colonization: When a foreign power takes over a civilization’s political, economic, and social systems and establishes direct colonial control.  This often involved large-scale settlement and exploitation of native resources, as well as efforts to convert the local populations to Christianity and impose European cultural norms.

Trading Companies: Investors buy shares of stock, combining their resources to fund large ventures, such as overseas exploration, colonization, and trade. 

• Monopoly over Trade: Many trading companies were granted monopolies by their home governments, giving them exclusive rights to trade in specific regions or with particular goods. This helped European powers control lucrative trade routes and commodities, such as spices, silks, and precious metals.

• Joint-Stock: Some trading companies were also joint-stock companies, allowing private investors to buy shares. This reduced individual risk by spreading the potential losses and profits among multiple investors.

• Private Military Forces: Many trading companies, particularly the larger ones, had their own military forces, which they used to protect their interests, enforce their monopolies, and sometimes even engage in territorial conquest. For instance, the British East India Company had its own army.

  • Dutch East India Company (VOC): Dominated the spice trade in Southeast Asia and played a major role in Dutch colonization.

  • British East India Company: Became the dominant force in India and controlled much of the trade between Britain and Asia.

Causes and Effects

Portuguese

Trading Posts (India, China, Africa)

Factors: Were equipped with heavy artillery, allowed them to overpower most other crafts they encountered. Afronso d’Alboquerque, commander of Portuguese forces, sought to control Indian Ocean trade by enforcing safe-conduct passes. Vasco de Gama obtained permission from local authorities to establish trading posts.

Causes: Wanted to access and control trade routes.

Effects: Built more than 50 trading posts between west Africa and East Africa. Traded West African slaves and fine spices such as nutmeg and cloves, attempted to control African gold trade, controlled access to Persian Gulf, and offered access to market in China and Japan.

Angola

Factors: Portuguese exploited political division and faced little resistance after the death of Queen Nzinga. Powerful arms and wealth of the Portuguese aided their colonization.

Causes: Wanted to establish a colony that would support large-scale trading in slaves. Neighboring allies delivered increasing number of war captives.

Effects: Portuguese extended and tightened their control over Angola, the first European colony in sub-saharan Africa.

Brazil, South America

Factors: Treaty of Tordesillas: allowed Portugal to claim land not already under Christian rule to the East of an imaginary line that divided South America. Pedro Albares de Cabral stopped in Brazil while en route to India.

Causes: Portugal was interested in Brazil due to the profitable sugar plantations on the coast. Recruited African American workers as laborers.

Effects: Portuguese planters and owners of sugar mills became powerful and wealthy. Epidemic diseases also declined indigenous populations and made it hard to find workers. Therefore, imported African slaves and relied on African labor large-scale.

English

Trading Posts (India)

Factors: East India Company/Joint Stock Companies enabled investors to realize profits while minimizing risk to their investments. Also sailed faster, cheaper, and more powerful ships due to advanced technology and pursuit of profits.

Causes: Seeking profit and involvement in the spice trade.

Effects: English established trade posts in India that traded metals and valuables in return for spices. Region experienced peaceful trade in India where both parties benefited.

Colony (North America)

Factors: Did not encounter centralized states or agricultural peoples in densely populated societies. Negotiated right to land by treaties and epidemic diseases declined indigenous populations.

Causes: In search of northeast passage to Asia and fish. Availability of fertile lands attracted settlers for profit.

Effects: Began to establish permanent colonies in the Americas and experienced conflicts with indigenous peoples.

Dutch

Colony (Java)

Factors: Naval power to force people to deliver spices only to VOC merchants. No centralized state and took advantage of tensions between princes and authorities and promised aid against others.

Causes: Wanted to establish monopoly over spice production (cloves, nutmeg, mace) which would enable them to reap enormous profits.

Effects: VOC controlled all the ports of Java as well as most important spice-bearing islands in Indonesia.

Colony (South Africa)

Factors: Alliance with local peoples and intervened in disputes to support allies and advance own interests. Firearms allowed possession of land.

Causes: Search of commercial affairs (profit)

Effects: Trading post at Cape Town and commandeered Khoikhoi people for labor. Established colonies throughout region which were a foundation for Dutch and English colonies.

French

Colony (North America)

Factors: Private instigators, where individuals put up money to support expeditions to America and retained control over the colonies

Causes: Availability of fertile lands and in search of northwest passage to Asia. Also very profitable in fur trade.

Effects: Conflict between settlers and native peoples, where native peoples resented settlers who intruded on their hunting grounds.

Spanish

Colony (Philippines)

Factors: Did not have powerful state when Europeans arrived and imperial authorities in China or India did not claim the islands. Heavily armed ships brought force.

Causes: Promote trade and support commercial activity. Spread Roman Catholicism and rulers and missionaries pressured locals to convert to Christianity.

Effects: Manila became multi-racial trading port, and Chinese merchants were prominent in trade with the Spanish. Over time Philippines became one of the most fervent Roman Catholic lands.

Colony (The Caribbean)

Factors: Christopher Columbus made the island of Hispaniola the base of Spanish operations and the capital of the Spanish Caribbean. Little resistance from Taíno people and showed interest in Spanish trade goods.

Causes: Build forts and trading posts where merchants could trade for products. Ideal conditions for establishing sugar plantations and cultivation of cash crops. Tobacco also became profitable cash crop.

Effect: Conscription of Taíno labor workers, known as Encomienda system. It gave Spanish the right to compel workers to work in fields or mines in return for health, welfare, and conversion to Christianity. Social disruption and physical abuse led to the decline of Taíno populations. Declined demographics due to epidemic diseases such as smallpox and also enslavement of indigenous peoples.

Colony (Mexico and Peru)

Factors: Indigenous allies supported Spanish conquest who were eager to get rid of Aztec or Inca rule. Steel swords, muskets, and cannon offered advantages to military conquest. Smallpox also declined populations and allowed Spanish conquest due to little resistance.

Causes: Search for gold in America, along with precious metals such as silver.

Effects: Mining industries of Mexico and Peru powered Spanish economy in the Americas and even world economy. Establishment of Mita system, where Spanish would recruit workers to work at silver mines. Spanish monarchy extended its control to American empires and established royal policy and administration.

Topic 4: Continuities & Change in Global Trade Networks

Silk Roads

• On the decline due to increased maritime trade instead of trade through land-based trade networks.

• Still controlled mainly by Asian authorities

Indian Ocean Network

• Europeans appear in the Indian Ocean trade network and try to engage in trade. Some even try to take over or monopolize trade.

• Continues to expand and flourish due to increased maritime trade.

• Luxury goods such as pepper, cotton, fine spices, silk, porcelain that are still in high demand that fuels trade. These luxury items are still in high demand, especially for Europeans, and Europeans find routes to these goods through maritime trade.

• Europeans do not fully replace dominant merchant classes after arriving at the Indian Ocean Network

Indian Ocean Network

Impact on Africa/African population: Swahili city-states were disrupted of slave patterns by the Portuguese who attempted to control trade in East Africa. Although not successful, Swahili cities never fully recovered.

Swahili Arabs: Maintained strong regional alliances and relied on their knowledge of local trade to remain a hub of exchange against Portuguese. Exported ivory, gad, slaves and imported luxury items, textiles, and spices

Impact on Local Merchants:

Omanis: Controlled strategic trading posts that rivaled Europeans, Drove out Portuguese from East Africa and established Zanzibar. Controlled maritime empire centered around spice trade and east African slave trade.

Gujaratis: Negotiated favorable terms with Portuguese and were known for high-quality textiles that helped become key supplier to global textile trade. Established communities that retained economic power and were known as “middleman” who facilitated trade between Europeans and Indian Ocean traders.

Javanese: Crucial in spice trade and connected Southeast Asia with Indian Ocean trade through long history of trade with China, India, and Middle East. Retained control over trade and spice markets that VOC could not monopolize. Played Europeans against each other to avoid European single power.

Impact on China/Chinese Merchants: Trade brought prosperity to Chinese due to production of luxury goods that were traded for silver. Linked China to the global trade networks in Manila.

Trans-Atlantic “Triangular” Trade

Impact on Africa/African population: Portuguese mariners attempted to capture slaves from Africa, but was met with great resistance. They later found they could purchase slaves and deliver them in great amounts to be miners, porters, or domestic servants.

Portuguese sugar planters relied on slave labor as demand and production soured. Spanish settlers relied on African slaves due to the decrease in Indigenous populations to work as cultivators and miners.

Middle Passage: Trans-Atlantic journey aboard filthy and crowded slave ships. High mortality rates due to poor conditions. Led to the involuntary migration of around 12 million Africans to western hemisphere due to increased European demand for slave labor. Deprived African societies of around 10 million individuals.

Gender imbalance, with women making up more than two thirds of the adult population due to European preference for young males to take in the slave trade. Women took on duties earlier belong to men. Polygamy, practice of having more than one wife at a time, took place in Africa.

Some African societies took advantage of the slave trade and benefited off of it. Asante, Dahomey, Oyo peoples took advantage of European slave trade to obtain firearms and build powerful states in West Africa. Dahomey expanded rapidly and absorbed neighboring societies by increasing firearms that were traded with captured slaves. Escalated political rivalry and violence in Africa.

Impact on Native Americans: Disease decline indigenous peoples’ population dramatically. Europeans settlers also recruited Native Americans to work in sugar plantations of silver mines.

Impact on Europeans: Portuguese planters and owners of sugar mills were privileged class who exercised power and gained wealth through cash crops.

Silver Trade

Impact on Native Americans: Silver production concentrated in Zacatecas and Potosí. Native American laborers voluntarily went due to increased pressure of conquest and disease and became professional miners, spoke Spanish, and lost touch with their original communities.

Mita System: recruited Native American workers for particularly dangerous jobs where Spanish authorities required each native village to send 1/3 of its male population to work at Potosí for four months. Influenced settlements patterns throughout Andés region and negatively impacted Indigenous population due to harsh working conditions.

Impact on Europeans: American silver fueled Spanish economy. Spanish kings used to finance a powerful army and Bureaucracy. Europeans also traded silver for silk, spices, and porcelain in Asia. Europeans manufactured goods traded for Mexican and Peruvian silver across the Atlantic. Spanish Manila Galleons traded Asian luxury goods from Philippines for Mexican silver.

Impact on China/Chinese Merchants: Thriving domestic economy demanded increasing quantities of silver. Europeans could trade silver for Chinese gold and other Asian luxuries. Chinese export were traded only in silver which supported the silver-based Chinese economy and fueled manufacturing.

Topic 5: Causes & Effects of the Atlantic Slave Trade

Africa

Humans and the Environment

Population decline in African (estimated 10 million individuals) due to slave trade. Especially in West African societies such as Senegal and Angola that were close to slave ports. However, in the modern era, African populations rose due to enriched diets from American food crops.

Cultural Developments and Interactions

Kings of Kongo converted to Christianity for closer relationship with Portuguese merchants and to legitimize their ruler. Kongo and Angola supported priests and missionaries who introduced Christianity to Africa.

Christian teaching blended with African traditions (such as nature deities and veneration of ancestors) to form syncretic cults

• Antonian movement: Dona Beatriz claimed she was possessed and chosen as a messenger. She used her popularity to promote African form of Christianity. It was a faith that reflected African needs and concerns as well as European missionaries.

Governance

Increased conflicts and violence where African societies captured neighboring societies for slaves in exchange for weapons.

Dahomey: expanded rapidly and absorbed neighboring societies through firearms and profited through slave trade.

Decline of Swahili states due to Portuguese attempts to control trade in East Africa. Swahili states never fully recovered.

Kongo: Portuguese established close relationship that at first benefited Kongo. Over time, Portuguese undermined the authority of the kings due to increased slave trade and eventually led to the decline of the Kongo empire.

Ndongo (Angola): Resisted against Portuguese who used their population for the slave trade, such as Queen Nzinga. Eventually Portuguese tightened their control over the kingdom.

Economic Systems

Africans who raided, captured, and sold slaves profited from trade with Europeans and in exchange gained firearms and other European goods.

Social Interactions and Organization

Distorted gender ratios: Europeans took young men that were fit for hard labour and as a result women made up 2/3 of West African societies. Women took on duties that were earlier meant for men and men practiced polygamy.

Technology and Innovation

African peoples obtained firearms from Europeans and used it to build powerful states.

The Americas

Humans and the Environment

Majority of population in Americas were African slaves. Majority of slaves went to the Caribbean and Brazil to work at sugar plantations. Harsh conditions and disease led to high mortality rates and increased demand for African slaves.

Cultural Developments and Interactions

Syncretic religions: slaves made a hybrid culture that formed African-American culture. The new religions drew inspiration from Christianity but combined African traditions such as drumming, dancing, sacrificing animals, and the belief in spirits and supernatural powers.

Africans living in the Americans preserved their traditions through various ways. African music created from African traditions attuned to the plantation landscape and brought a sense of community and reminded slaves a sense of cultural belonging. New language of creole appeared that drew on several African and European languages. Slaves also introduced African foods to American societies and gave rise to hybrid cuisines.

Governance

Abolitionist movements: slaves opposed harsh conditions and cruelty and were effective due to immense volume of slaves. However, they did not succeed due to European advanced technologies.

Economic Systems

Europeans profit from the plantations and slave labors that produced cash crops. Crops such as tobacco, rice, cotton, and sugar were produced and Europeans profited.

Social Interactions and Organization

Mixed society of Europeans, indigenous peoples, and African slaves.

Europeans ranked the highest in new social hierarchy. Plantations featured racial division of labor with European or Euro-American supervisors governed plantation affairs while large numbers of African or African-American slaves performed most of the community’s physical labor.

In the Caribbean and South America, slaves had low rates of reproduction because plantation owners mostly imported male slaves and allowed only a few to establish families. In North America, slave owners encouraged male slaves to start families in order to obtain more slaves.

Topic 6: Reaction to European Trade in Asia and Africa

Kongo

Established commercial and political relationships with Portugal. Portuguese supplied kings with advisors, military support, and workers in exchange for ivory, gold, and slave. Also converted to Christianity for legitimization of their rule, better relationships with Portuguese merchants, diplomatic relationships with Portuguese, and recognition from other Christian states.

Relationships eventually led to downfall due to slave raiding and increase in slave trade by the Portuguese that decline population in the kingdom. Led to war with Portuguese with a result of the defeat of Kongo.

China (Ming and Qing Dynasties)

Benefited from trade: influx of silver which became basis of the economy that was exchanged for Asian luxury goods. Manila was a crucial trading hub where Chinese goods were exchanged for American silver. Both sides, Spanish and Chinese, benefited.

Tight government control: Main concern was to preserve stability of agrarian society, not rapid economic development through trade. Qing governors only permitted Portuguese merchants at Macau and British merchants at Guangzhou. Chinese government also prevented development of large trading companies such as VOC or East India Company.

Did not convert to Christianity: unwilling to give up Confucianism and Buddhism to the exclusive Christian faith. While Jesuits were tolerable and respectful, they were largely unsuccessful in finding many converts.

Japan - Tokugawa Shoguns

Tokugawa Shogunate: centralized military government of China

Tightly controlled relations with foreigners and overall policy of isolation from international trade. Thought Europeans would compromise security and daimyo (regional lords who controlled local areas) would create alliances with Europeans

Forbade Japanese from going abroad, and punished severely. Only small number of Chinese and Dutch merchants traded at the only open port Nagasaki.

Prevented spread of Christianity by officially banning it. Missionaries were not allowed and forbade Japanese from practicing the faith, facing severe punishment.

India - Mughal Empire

Significant income from Indian Ocean trade through trade of silver and luxury goods in exchange for Indian spices, textiles, indigo, etc. Mughals allowed creation of trading posts, and although Europeans had to abide by Mughal laws and pay custom duties, they were usually granted freedom to conduct business as they wished.

Indian merchants formed trading companies and traveled to ports abroad such as in Persia and Indonesia.

Under Akbar, was tolerant to Christian missionaries and also supported religious debates and spread of the faith along with other foreign faiths.

Topic 7: Resistance/Challenges to State Power

Pueblo Revolts

Causes: Spanish missionaries attempted to forcibly assimilate to Christianity and also ecological pressure such as droughts and famine that worsened their conditions increasing put pressure on the Pueblo

Events: Pueblo attacked Spanish settlements and coordinated organized revolts. They were able to remove the Spanish for 12 years.

Effects: Spanish came back, but with more peaceful relations with the Pueblo. Spanish focused on peace-keeping by being more tolerable and less strict, and Pueblo become allies who helped Pueblo against other tribes.

Ana Nzinga’s Rebellion (Kongo)

Causes: Portuguese attempts to establish colony at Luanda (Angola). Portuguese slave raids and military attacks.

Events: At first allied with Portugal that acquired military ally against African enemies and ended slave raiding in the kingdom. After, Portugal betrayed them and Queen Nzinga established Matamba as a new capital that offered sanctuary to slaves and soldiers. Combined forces with Netherlands to seize Luanda.

Effects: Portuguse reclaimed Luanda, forcing Nzinga back to Matamba. Matamba became a formidable commercial state that dealt with Portuguese colony on equal footing.

King Philip’s War/Metacom’s Rebellion (North America)

Causes: English settlers continue to move into Wampanog lands, despite previous treaties.

Events: Wampanog destroyed several English villages and war with the English colonies. Mohawks align with the English.

Effects: Most consequential war of the seventeenth century in English colonies and increased encroachment into native lands (continued to take lands). Not successful for indigenous peoples.

The Fronde (France)

Causes: Financial difficulties in government who tried to raise revenues by selling government positions and nobles lost access to tax money. Nobles wanted to restore normal judicial procedure in registering financial edicts to parliament and resisted when monarchs tried to centralize power.

Events: Lords demanded to get the system how it was before and revolt drove away the royal court to the countryside

Effects: Nobles were divided, and could not win. King and advisors were back in charge but agreed to some concessions.

Maroon Resistance (Jamaica)

Causes: Marronage (enslaved people escaped slavery by running away)

Events: Maroons formed runaway communities called Palenques or Macambos and launched attacks and freed other slaves. King Tacky’s revolt launched major rebellion in Jamaica.

Effects: British colonists recognized the maroons’ freedom and made treaty

Topic 8: Treatment of Ethnic & Religious Minorities / Changing Social Hierarchies

Spanish

Treatment of Ethnic/Religious Minorities

Spread of Roman Catholicism: rulers and missionaries pressured natives to convert to Christianity.

• In the Americas, missionaries learned native language and sought to teach Christianity in understandable terms to best communicate the faith. Sometimes, the Spanish would pressure indigenous peoples to convert. Indigenous peoples continued to follow native traditions even with the spread of Christianity.

• In the Phillippines, missionaries encountered stiff resistance because of the resentment of the new faith. Over time, however, it became one of the most dominant Roman Catholic lands in the world.

Development of Syncretic Religious Traditions

Natives blended their own interests and traditions with the faith taught by Spanish (Christian) missionaries. Revered saints with qualities of inherited gods or feast days that coincided with traditional celebrations.

Virgin of Guadalupe symbolized Mexican nationalism and the blend of Mexican faith with the promise of salvation brought by Christianity. Ensured Roman Catholic Christianity would dominate cultural and religious matters in Mexico but also Mexican religion retained strong indigenous influences.

Social Classes/Structure

Mestizo society: formed because of interracial relationships among Europeans, natives, and African slaves. Developed due to the abundance of men in the colonies compared to women and in order to have children, mixed with other races and led to the creation of an interracial society.

Casta System → New social hierarchy

• Peninsulares: Migrants born in Europe who held the highest social status.

• Creoles: American-born descendants of Europeans who were below peninsulares but often wealthy and educated.

• Mestizos: Individuals of mixed European and indigenous descent, forming a significant part of the population.

• Indigenous people: Native populations who were often marginalized and faced discrimination.

• African slaves: Enslaved individuals who had the lowest social status and were subjected to harsh conditions.

Sexual Hierarchy: The colonies were a patriarchal society where men dominated over women.

Women were often divided into hierarchies.

• Women of European descent held elite position with more power but often pressured to conform to stereotypes and strict patriarchal control

• Women of color/low class: Part of the labor force and did traditional female work. Compared to their elite counterparts, they were more free to move about in public and interact with males

• Black, mulatta, and zamba slaves: Required to perform harsh physical tasks

Mughal and Ottoman Empires

Treatment of Ethnic/Religious Minorities

Mughal: The Mughal Empire was known for its relatively tolerant policies towards non-Muslim communities, particularly Hindus, who were allowed to practice their religion and had representation in the imperial administration.

• Akbar: Received Jesuits and welcomed participation in religious discussions. He abolished jizya tax, tolerated all faiths, and sponsored religious debates

• Aurangzeb: Reinstated the jizya tax, promoted Islam as official faith, and was not tolerant to other religions. He increased tensions between Hindu and Muslims.

Ottomans: Ottomans were religiously tolerant but did not have full equality → Only permitted to live in certain lands, pay special tax, and could not hold top government positions

• Devshirme: Took Christian boys and converted them to Islam. Very loyal to the Sultan and became bureaucratic elites or soldiers (Janissaries)

  • The Janissaries replaced Ulama and became a new social class that was very influential

Development of Syncretic Religious Traditions

Skihism developed as a faith that combined Islam and Hindu ideas. The reason for its development was to pacify relationships between Muslims and Hindus.

Akbar attempted to implement the “divine faith” in the kingdom that emphasized loyalty to the empire and also combined elements of different religions and traditions. He created Divine Faith to advocate for all the religious diversity in the Mughal empire while legitimizing his rule.

Social Classes/Structure

Ottoman Empire

• Muslims were the elite ruling class

• Dhimmi: Non-Muslims were “protected peoples” under the Ottoman Empire in return for a jizyah, a special tax non-Muslims were required to pay. Under this, they retained personal freedom, kept property, practiced religion, and handled legal affairs.

• Millet System: Communities of religious groups that were acknowledged to retain civil laws, traditions, and languages. They assumed social and administrative functions.

Mughal Empire

• Mughal rulers reserved the most powerful military and administrative positions for Muslims. However, Muslims and Hindus still cooperated closely for day-to-day affairs.

Ming and Qing Dynasty

Treatment of Ethnic/Religious Minorities

Manchu forced Chinese men to adopt Manchu clothing styles and hairstyles called queue. Qing emperors forbade marriages between Manchus and Native Chinese, but this was later relaxed.

Confucianism remained the dominant social and governing policy of China. Qing also adapted the Chinese language and retained the Chinese imperial examination system.

Conquered people were not forced to adopt Chinese culture during expansion.

Development of Syncretic Religious Traditions

Manchu rulers aligned themselves with Tibetan Buddhism by depicting themselves as a Bodhisattva in order to gain support of Tibetans and Mongols where Tibetan Buddhism was very influential.

Cultural syncretism: Qing Dynasty was willing to adapt and adopt local customs to strengthen their rule, and engaged in cultural diplomacy

Social Classes/Structure

Manchus gained highest governing positions but Confucian scholar-official class ran much of the Chinese bureaucracy.

Gentry: educated, land owning elites; not necessarily in government. While scholar-bureaucrats ranked higher than gentry, they shared many similarities and exercised political, social, and financial power.