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Psychology Study Guide

1. Scientific Research and Behavior

Scientific research helps psychologists understand behavior by using systematic observation, measurement, and experimentation. Instead of relying on guesses or personal beliefs, researchers collect empirical evidence (information gained through observation or experiments).

Importance of Empirical Research

Empirical research is important because it:

  • Uses real data and observations

  • Allows results to be tested and repeated

  • Helps scientists make accurate conclusions about behavior

Example: Instead of guessing if sleep affects memory, researchers test participants and measure results.

2. The Scientific Method

The scientific method is a step-by-step process used to answer research questions.

Steps

  1. Ask a research question

  2. Form a hypothesis (testable prediction)

  3. Conduct research or experiment

  4. Collect and analyze data

  5. Draw conclusions

  6. Report findings

3. Facts vs Opinions

Fact

  • Based on evidence or observation

  • Can be tested or proven

Example: Lack of sleep reduces concentration.

Opinion

  • Based on personal belief

  • Cannot be scientifically tested

Example: Sleeping late is bad for students.

4. Theory vs Hypothesis

Hypothesis

A specific, testable prediction about behavior.

Example: Students who sleep 8 hours will perform better on memory tests.

Theory

A well-supported explanation based on many studies.

Example: Theories explaining how memory works.

Falsifiability

A scientific claim must be possible to prove wrong through testing.
If something cannot be tested or disproven, it is not scientific.

5. Research Methods Used by Psychologists

Psychologists use several research methods to study behavior:

  • Case studies

  • Naturalistic observation

  • Surveys

  • Archival research

  • Correlational research

  • Experiments

6. Strengths and Weaknesses of Research Methods

Case Studies

Detailed study of one person or small group

Strengths

  • Provides deep, detailed information

  • Useful for rare situations

Weaknesses

  • Cannot generalize results to everyone

  • May be biased

Naturalistic Observation

Observing behavior in a natural environment without interference.

Strengths

  • Behavior is natural and realistic

Weaknesses

  • No control over variables

  • Hard to determine cause and effect

Surveys

Participants answer questions about attitudes or behavior.

Strengths

  • Can collect data from many people quickly

Weaknesses

  • People may lie or give inaccurate answers

Archival Research

Uses existing data or records.

Strengths

  • Saves time and resources

Weaknesses

  • Data may be incomplete or outdated

7. Longitudinal vs Cross-Sectional Research

Longitudinal Study

Studies the same group of people over a long time.

Example: Following children from age 5 to 20.

Pros

  • Shows real development over time

Cons

  • Takes many years

  • Expensive

Cross-Sectional Study

Compares different age groups at one time.

Example: Comparing 10-year-olds, 20-year-olds, and 30-year-olds.

Pros

  • Faster

  • Cheaper

Cons

  • Differences may be due to generation, not age.

8. Correlation vs Causation

Correlation

A relationship between two variables.

Example: As exercise increases, stress decreases.

Causation

One variable directly causes a change in another.

Example: Lack of sleep causes poor concentration.

Important: Correlation does NOT mean causation.

9. Correlation Coefficient

The correlation coefficient (r) shows the strength and direction of a relationship.

Range: -1.00 to +1.00

  • +1.00 = perfect positive relationship

  • 0 = no relationship

  • -1.00 = perfect negative relationship

Example:
+0.80 = strong positive correlation

10. Correlational Fallacy

This is the mistake of assuming that because two things are related, one causes the other.

Example: Ice cream sales and crime both increase in summer.
Ice cream does not cause crime.

11. Random Sampling and Random Assignment

Random Sampling

Selecting participants so everyone has an equal chance of being chosen.

Purpose: Makes results represent the population.

Random Assignment

Participants are randomly placed into groups in an experiment.

Groups:

  • Experimental group (gets treatment)

  • Control group (does not)

Purpose: Prevents bias.

12. Bias in Experiments

Experimenter Bias

Researcher expectations influence results.

Participant Bias

Participants change behavior because they know they are being studied.

Example: Acting differently in a psychology experiment.

13. Independent vs Dependent Variables

Independent Variable

The variable the researcher manipulates or changes.

Dependent Variable

The variable that is measured.

Example:

Independent variable: amount of sleep
Dependent variable: memory test score

14. Motivation

Intrinsic Motivation

Doing something because it is personally rewarding.

Example: Studying because you enjoy learning.

Extrinsic Motivation

Doing something because of external rewards or punishments.

Example: Studying for good grades.

15. Theories of Motivation

Instinct Theory

Behavior is driven by inborn instincts.

Example: Survival behaviors.

Drive Reduction Theory

Motivation comes from the desire to reduce physical discomfort.

Example: Eating when hungry.

Self-Efficacy

Belief in your ability to succeed.

Optimal Arousal Theory

People are motivated to maintain an ideal level of excitement or alertness.

16. Yerkes-Dodson Law

Performance increases with arousal (stress or excitement) up to a point.

Too little stress → boredom
Too much stress → poor performance

Moderate stress → best performance

17. Overjustification Effect

When external rewards reduce intrinsic motivation.

Example: A student who enjoys drawing loses interest after being paid for it.

18. Insufficient Justification

People change their attitudes to match their behavior when the reward is small.

Example: Convincing yourself you like something because you chose to do it.

19. Key Psychological Terms

Homeostasis

The body's ability to maintain internal balance.

Example: Regulating body temperature.

Habit

A learned behavior repeated regularly.

Arousal

A state of alertness or activation.

Cognitive Dissonance

Discomfort felt when beliefs and actions conflict.

Example: Smoking while believing smoking is unhealthy.

20. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow suggested humans are motivated by a hierarchy of needs.

Order (lowest to highest):

  1. Physiological needs – food, water, sleep

  2. Safety needs – security, protection

  3. Love and belonging – relationships

  4. Esteem – respect and confidence

  5. Self-actualization – reaching full potential

Lower needs must be met before higher ones.

21. Emotion

Emotion

A complex experience involving:

  • Physiological arousal

  • Cognitive interpretation

  • Behavioral expression

22. Theories of Emotion

James-Lange Theory

Emotion occurs after physiological changes.

Example:
Heart races → brain interprets → fear

Two-Factor Theory (Schachter-Singer)

Emotion depends on:

  1. Physical arousal

  2. Cognitive label

Example:
Heart racing + thinking about danger = fear.

Misattribution of Arousal

Mistakenly interpreting physical arousal as a different emotion.

Example: Thinking excitement from exercise is attraction.

Facial Feedback Theory

Facial expressions can influence emotions.

Example: Smiling can make you feel happier.

23. Emotional Expression

Humans across cultures can produce and recognize emotional expressions.

Common universal emotions include:

  • Happiness

  • Sadness

  • Anger

  • Fear

  • Surprise

  • Disgust

This suggests emotional expression is biologically universal.