Child Development studies the physical, mental, emotional, and social development from conception through adolescence.
Key topics include:
Motor development
Language development
Attachment
Temperament
Gender and identity development
Intelligence
Prosocial and aggressive behavior
Play
Family influences on development
Understanding child development requires examining multiple psychological perspectives:
Biological Perspective
Psychodynamic Perspective
Learning Perspective
Cognitive Developmental Perspective
Contextual Perspective
Belief that intellectual and personality development, as well as physical and motor development, are rooted in biology.
Maturational Theory (Arnold Gessell):
Child development follows a specific, predefined plan within the body.
Development unfolds naturally based on a biological timetable; experience has minimal impact.
This theory echoes J. Rousseau's earlier ideas.
Gessell suggests behaviors such as speech, play, and reasoning emerge spontaneously at set times.
Limitations of Maturational Theory:
Rejected for not accounting for experiences.
Ethological Theory: Focuses on adaptive behaviors that assist survival, indicating that many behaviors are inherited.
Examples: Grasping and crying in infants.
Certain learnings occur during critical periods, such as language acquisition.
The oldest perspective on child development, associated with Sigmund Freud.
Freud's theories emphasize how early childhood experiences shape later behavior.
Development involves resolving conflicts at different ages, with three components of personality:
Id: Primitive instincts and drives seeking immediate gratification.
Ego: Rational component dealing with reality.
Superego: Moral conscience guiding behavior.
Erikson's Psychosocial Theory: Extends Freud's ideas to include social and psychological factors.
Proposes 8 stages of development, each with a unique crisis:
Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy)
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Early Childhood)
Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool)
Industry vs. Inferiority (School Age)
Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence)
Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood)
Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood)
Inspired by J. Locke, viewing an infant's mind as a blank slate.
Watson applied this, stating experiences determine child development; Skinner extended it with operant conditioning, focusing on reinforcement and punishment.
Major Concepts: Reinforcement, Punishment, Imitation.
Social Cognitive Theory (Albert Bandura):
Emphasizes the influence of rewards, punishments, and modeling in learning.
Experience shapes children's beliefs in their abilities (self-efficacy).
Focuses on how children's thinking progresses over time.
Jean Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development:
Sensorimotor (0-2 years): Learning through senses and actions.
Preoperational (2-7 years): Using symbols, egocentric thinking.
Concrete Operational (7-11 years): Logical thinking about concrete events.
Formal Operational (12 and up): Abstract reasoning.
Studies the role of various environmental influences (parents, school, media) on child development.
Lev Vygotsky's Contributions: Highlighted how cultural contexts influence cognitive development.
No single theory fully explains child development; combined themes from different theories provide deeper insights.
Continuity vs. Discontinuity: Examines predictability and consistency of development stages.
Nature vs. Nurture: Investigates the interplay between genetics and environment in development.
Active vs. Passive Child: Considers whether children actively shape their development or are shaped by their environment.
Systematic Observation: Researchers collect data from a distance without involvement.
Naturalistic Observation: Observes behavior in a natural setting without intervention.
Sampling Behaviors with Tasks: Uses specific tasks to observe behaviors.
Self-reports: Includes interviews and questionnaires.
Physiological Measures: Collects data on physiological responses.
Correlational Studies: Explore relationships between variables without manipulation.
Experimental Studies: Manipulate variables to determine cause and effect relationships.
Longitudinal Design: Studies the same subjects over time to observe changes and patterns.
Cross-Sectional Design: Compares different groups at one time to infer developmental trends.
Longitudinal Sequential Study: Combines longitudinal and cross-sectional, examining various cohorts over time.
Researchers must protect participants from harm and respect their rights, ensuring informed consent, confidentiality, and the option to withdraw.
Special considerations for research involving children to safeguard their welfare.
Researchers publish findings in scientific journals, which contribute to knowledge and ongoing research in child development.