Cognitive Psych
Illusion of Truth —— cognitive bias where a statement repeatedly encountered is perceived as being more true. This can happen regardless of whether the information is true or not. Imagine seeing a social media post multiple times claiming that a certain food cures cancer. Even if you have no prior knowledge of this, you might start to believe it to be true simply because you've seen it repeated so many times.
Cryptomnesia ——- phenomenon where a forgotten memory is unintentionally retrieved and presented as a new idea. The person experiencing cryptomnesia is unaware that the memory is not original. A musician might write a song believing it to be entirely original, only to later discover it bears a striking resemblance to a song they heard years ago.
Generation Effect —- a memory bias where people remember information better if they generate it themselves, rather than simply reading or hearing it. Imagine studying for a test by creating your own practice questions compared to just reading the answers in a textbook. You're more likely to remember the information if you generated the questions yourself.
Spreading Activation explains how thoughts and memories are interconnected. When a concept is activated in memory, it activates related concepts as well, creating a network of associations. Example: Imagine thinking about "apple." This might activate related concepts like "pie," "orchard," "red," and "sweet" in your mind, all connected through the initial concept of "apple."
Procedural Memory the memory system responsible for storing knowledge of how to perform actions or skills. Example: Riding a bike, playing a musical instrument, or tying your shoes are all examples of procedural memory.
Positivity Bias tendency to focus on positive information and experiences over negative ones. This can lead to people remembering positive events more vividly and for longer than negative events. Example: Imagine going on a vacation with a friend. There might be a few minor inconveniences, but overall, you have a great time. When recalling the trip later, you might focus more on the positive aspects and forget about the minor annoyances.
Disputed Memory - a memory that is called into question or disagreement between two or more people. These memories can be especially challenging due to the difficulty of verifying their accuracy. Example: Eyewitness testimonies in court cases are a common example of disputed memories. Two people might witness the same event but have different recollections of what happened.
Part-Set Cueing a memory phenomenon where a cue reminds you of some, but not all, of the items on a list. This can lead to difficulty recalling the remaining items because the cue creates a false sense of completion. Example: Imagine trying to remember your grocery list. If someone reminds you of milk, bread, and eggs, you might mistakenly think you've remembered everything and forget other items on the list.
Sensory Memory has a Very large capacity, Very short duration (milliseconds to seconds)
Working Memory has Limited capacity, Limited duration (seconds to minutes)
Long-term Memory has Very large capacity, Potentially limitless duration (years to a lifetime)
Deep encoding — involves processing information in a meaningful and elaborate way, often relating it to existing knowledge or personal experiences, which leads to better retention and recall. Trying to remember the word "cat" by associating it with a personal experience, such as recalling a cherished childhood pet named Whiskers, and visualizing the furry feline playing in the backyard. This involves elaborative rehearsal and semantic processing, linking the word "cat" with personal memories and emotions.
Shallow encoding - involves superficially processing information, focusing on its surface features without much elaboration or connection to other knowledge. Trying to remember the word "cat" by merely repeating it several times without giving much thought to its meaning or relevance. This involves maintenance rehearsal and surface-level processing, focusing solely on the visual or auditory features of the word without making meaningful connections.
5) List three examples that demonstrate a lack of knowledge of how human memory systems work.
Cramming the night/day of exam- This ignores the importance of spaced repetition and sleep for memory consolidation. Cramming might lead to short-term recall for the test, but the information won't be well-encoded in long-term memory.
Rewriting your notes ten times to memorize them perfectly- While repetition can aid memory, simply copying information doesn't necessarily lead to deep encoding. This method focuses on shallow memorization and won't necessarily translate to understanding or long-term retention.
If you can't remember something, it means you never learned it- Memory retrieval can be influenced by various factors, not just the initial learning. Stress, fatigue, and even the way information is presented can all affect our ability to recall something. Forgetting doesn't always mean you never learned it, it just means you might need a different cue or context to retrieve the memory.
Episodic Memory example is Remembering your high school graduation ceremony.
Semantic Memory is Recalling that Paris is the capital of France.
Autobiographical Memory is Recollecting your wedding day.
Episodic memory is relatively accurate for the recollection of events, but is relatively
inaccurate for the precise details of events. Studies of memory reports of elderly participants have shown that there is no memory of events prior to the age of about 3 years (i.e.,
childhood amnesia), but disproportionately more memories are recalled
from the ages of about 10 to 30, which commonly is referred to as the reminiscence
bump.
Bjork and Bjork described “desirable difficulties” that enhance long-term learning/memory. Their work supports findings that the most effective study techniques for long-term learning are testing effects and retrieval practice, and relatively ineffective study techniques include passive reading and rereading. The latter are likely ineffective because they lead to “illusions of mastery,” such as illusions of fluency and false recognition.
Decay: Over time, memories fade if not rehearsed or retrieved.
Interference: New information can interfere with the ability to retrieve old information (proactive and retroactive interference).
Retrieval failure
Elizabeth Loftus (and others) demonstrated that false memories are likely to occur if certain conditions are present. This is why false memories are likely to be created for eyewitness situations and perhaps in therapeutic settings. List 5 conditions that, when present, increase the probability that memory accuracy will be compromised, and false memories may form. The 5 must be distinct conditions, not multiple examples of a single condition.
Misinformation is introduced after the event: Exposure to misleading information after an event can become incorporated into the memory, distorting the original memory.
Repetitive questioning that focuses on specific details: Repetitive questioning, especially phrased in a leading way, can cause people to doubt their original memory and become more susceptible to suggestions.
Using misleading wording or suggestive language: The way a question is phrased can influence how someone remembers an event. Suggestive language can plant ideas that weren't part of the original experience.
Lack of confidence in the original memory: If someone is unsure about their memory of an event, they are more likely to be swayed by external information or suggestions.
Emotional arousal during the event or memory retrieval: High emotions can distort how we perceive and remember events. Strong emotions during the event or when recalling it can make the memory seem more vivid and true, even if details are inaccurate.
B) Essay (24 points): You have been asked by a school to give a talk on how principles of cognitive psychology can be used to enhance learning. You decide to present a 5-point plan for students and a 3- point plan for teachers to implement. Describe the two plans, listing the points and the cognitive principles upon which they are based. Clarify whether the points are things to be done prior to class, in class, or after class. You may use bullets, Tables, etc. to organize your response.
5-Point Plan for Students: Active Engagement: When: Before, during, and after class Principle: Active Learning Actions: Preview, participate, review. Spaced and Retrieval Practice: When: Before and after class Principles: Spaced Repetition, Retrieval Practice Actions: Review periodically, quiz yourself. Interleaved Practice: When: Before and after class Principle: Interleaving Actions: Mix topics, vary practice. Elaborative Encoding: When: Before, during, and after class Principle: Elaborative Encoding Actions: Relate, connect, reflect. Metacognitive Strategies: When: Before, during, and after class Principle: Metacognition Actions: Set goals, monitor, adjust. 3-Point Plan for Teachers: Promote Active Learning: Principle: Active Learning Actions: Group activities, real-world applications. Provide Timely Feedback: Principle: Feedback and Assessment Actions: Immediate feedback, formative assessments. Design Effective Instruction: Principles: Cognitive Load Theory, Multimedia Learning Actions: Clear objectives, manageable content, multimedia integration. ) Memory Systems
1) Sensory Memory
Brief retention of sensory information
One for each sensory system
Unlimited capacity
Very brief duration (milliseconds to seconds)
Attention selects relevant information for task goals
2) Working Memory
Limited capacity (4+/-1 items)
Brief duration (2-3 seconds) unless rehearsed
Conscious processing of items (contents of thought)
3) Long-term Memory
Unlimited capacity
Unlimited duration
B) Long Term Memory Systems
1) Explicit (Declarative) System
Semantic Memory
General knowledge (facts)
Not typically linked to specific location, time, or source
Models (structure)
Hierarchical/Categorical
Prototypes
Exemplars
Terms (e.g., Spreading Activation, Levels of Processing, Source Monitoring)
Episodic Memory
Time- and location-stamped episodes
Sense of self
Gist-based with generalities remembered
2) Implicit Memory
Storage affecting behavior outside awareness
Types: Procedural Memory, Classical Conditioning, Priming
C) Illusions and False Memories
Illusion of Truth
Cryptomnesia
2) False Memories
Semantic and Episodic false memories
Source Monitoring Framework
Eyewitness Memory
D) Forgetting
Retrieval- or storage-based mechanisms
Potential mechanisms: Overwriting, Decay, Interference, Inhibition
Motivated (Directed) Forgetting
E) Cognitive Psychology of Learning
1) Application of Basic Principles
Deep encoding, retrieval practice, re-activation at intervals
2) Learning Styles Research
Meshing Hypothesis
PowerPoint Usage
3) Effective & Ineffective Study Techniques
Recognition-based vs. recall-based techniques
Desirable Difficulties
4) Effective Studying for Long-term Learning
Pre-class preparation, in-class strategies, post-class activities
F) Meta-cognition
Understanding of cognitive/memory system
Awareness of strengths and weaknesses
Empathic view of others
Primacy Effect: The primacy effect refers to the tendency to better remember items presented at the beginning of a list. For example, if you're given a list of grocery items to remember, you're more likely to recall the items listed at the beginning, such as "milk" and "bread."
Recency Effect: The recency effect is the phenomenon where items presented at the end of a list are better remembered. For instance, if you're asked to remember a list of names, you're more likely to recall the names of people introduced most recently.
Flashbulb Bump: The flashbulb bump refers to the vivid and detailed memories people have for significant events that occurred during their adolescence or early adulthood. An example would be recalling where you were and how you felt when you heard about the assassination of a prominent political figure.
Elizabeth Loftus: Elizabeth Loftus is a cognitive psychologist known for her research on the malleability of memory, particularly regarding eyewitness testimony. For example, Loftus conducted studies showing how the wording of questions can influence the accuracy of eyewitness recollections, leading to the creation of false memories.
Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve: The Ebbinghaus forgetting curve illustrates the decline of memory retention over time without rehearsal. For example, if you memorize a list of vocabulary words but don't review them, your ability to recall those words will decrease over time according to a predictable curve.
Prospective Memory: Prospective memory involves remembering to perform a planned action at the appropriate time. 2) Define each term, or provide an example that demonstrates knowledge of the concept. Illusion of Truth —— cognitive bias where a statement repeatedly encountered is perceived as being more true. This can happen regardless of whether the information is actually true or not. Imagine seeing a social media post multiple times claiming that a certain food cures cancer. Even if you have no prior knowledge of this, you might start to believe it to be true simply because you've seen it repeated so many times. Cryptomnesia ——- phenomenon where a forgotten memory is unintentionally retrieved and presented as a new idea. The person experiencing cryptomnesia is unaware that the memory is not original. A musician might write a song believing it to be entirely original, only to later discover it bears a striking resemblance to a song they heard years ago. Generation Effect —- a memory bias where people remember information better if they generate it themselves, rather than simply reading or hearing it. Imagine studying for a test by creating your own practice questions compared to just reading the answers in a textbook. You're more likely to remember the information if you generated the questions yourself. Spreading Activation explains how thoughts and memories are interconnected. When a concept is activated in memory, it activates related concepts as well, creating a network of associations. Example: Imagine thinking about "apple." This might activate related concepts like "pie," "orchard," "red," and "sweet" in your mind, all connected through the initial concept of "apple." Procedural Memory the memory system responsible for storing knowledge of how to perform actions or skills. Example: Riding a bike, playing a musical instrument, or tying your shoes are all examples of procedural memory. Positivity Bias tendency to focus on positive information and experiences over negative ones. This can lead to people remembering positive events more vividly and for longer than negative events. Example: Imagine going on a vacation with a friend. There might be a few minor inconveniences, but overall, you have a great time. When recalling the trip later, you might focus more on the positive aspects and forget about the minor annoyances. Disputed Memory - a memory that is called into question or disagreement between two or more people. These memories can be especially challenging due to the difficulty of verifying their accuracy. Example: Eyewitness testimonies in court cases are a common example of disputed memories. Two people might witness the same event but have different recollections of what happened. Part-Set Cueing a memory phenomenon where a cue reminds you of some, but not all, of the items on a list. This can lead to difficulty recalling the remaining items because the cue creates a false sense of completion. Example: Imagine trying to remember your grocery list. If someone reminds you of milk, bread, and eggs, you might mistakenly think you've remembered everything and forget other items on the list. 3) Complete the Table below to show the similarities/differences in capacities and storage times for the three memory systems. _________________________________________________________________________________________ Memory System | Storage Capacity | Storage Time _________________________________________________________________________________________ Sensory Memory | Very large capacity | Very short duration (milliseconds to seconds) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Working Memory | Limited capacity | Limited duration (seconds to minutes) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Long-term Memory | Very large capacity | Potentially limitless duration (years to a lifetime) _________________________________________________________________________________________ 4) A key to effective memory is deep encoding. Provide an example of deep encoding and shallow encoding. Deep — involves processing information in a meaningful and elaborate way, often relating it to existing knowledge or personal experiences, which leads to better retention and recall.Trying to remember the word "cat" by associating it with a personal experience, such as recalling a cherished childhood pet named Whiskers, and visualizing the furry feline playing in the backyard. This involves elaborative rehearsal and semantic processing, linking the word "cat" with personal memories and emotions. Shallow - involves superficially processing information, focusing on its surface features without much elaboration or connection to other knowledge. Trying to remember the word "cat" by merely repeating it several times without giving much thought to its meaning or relevance. This involves maintenance rehearsal and surface-level processing, focusing solely on the visual or auditory features of the word without making meaningful connections. 5) List three examples that demonstrate lack of knowledge of how human memory systems work. Cramming the night/day of exam- This ignores the importance of spaced repetition and sleep for memory consolidation. Cramming might lead to short-term recall for the test, but the information won't be well-encoded in long-term memory. Rewriting your notes ten times to memorize them perfectly- While repetition can aid memory, simply copying information doesn't necessarily lead to deep encoding. This method focuses on shallow memorization and won't necessarily translate to understanding or long-term retention. If you can't remember something, it means you never learned it- Memory retrieval can be influenced by various factors, not just the initial learning. Stress, fatigue, and even the way information is presented can all affect our ability to recall something. Forgetting doesn't always mean you never learned it, it just means you might need a different cue or context to retrieve the memory. 6) List three explicit (or declarative) memory systems/types, and provide an example of each. Type Example Episodic Memory: Example: Remembering your high school graduation ceremony. Semantic Memory: Example: Recalling that Paris is the capital of France. Autobiographical Memory: Example: Recollecting your wedding day. 7) Episodic memory is relatively accurate for the recollection of events, but is relatively inaccurate for the precise details of events. Studies of memory reports of elderly participants have shown that there is no memory of events prior to the age of about 3 years (i.e., childhood amnesia), but disproportionately more memories are recalled from the ages of about 10 to 30, which commonly is referred to as the reminiscence bump. 8) Bjork and Bjork described “desirable difficulties” that enhance long-term learning/memory. Their work supports findings that the most effective study techniques for long-term learning are testing effects and retrieval practice, and relatively ineffective study techniques include passive reading and rereading. The latter are likely ineffective because they lead to “illusions of mastery,” such as illusions of fluency and false recognition. 9) List three mechanisms by which information can be forgotten (i.e., lost from a memory system). Decay: Over time, memories fade if not rehearsed or retrieved. Interference: New information can interfere with the ability to retrieve old information (proactive and retroactive interference). Retrieval failure 10) Elizabeth Loftus (and others) demonstrated that false memories are likely to occur if certain conditions are present. This is why false memories are likely to be created for eyewitness situations and perhaps in therapeutic settings. List 5 conditions that, when present, increase the probability that memory accuracy will be compromised, and false memories may form. The 5 must be distinct conditions, not multiple examples of a single condition. Misinformation is introduced after the event: Exposure to misleading information after an event can become incorporated into the memory, distorting the original memory. Repetitive questioning that focuses on specific details: Repetitive questioning, especially phrased in a leading way, can cause people to doubt their original memory and become more susceptible to suggestions. Using misleading wording or suggestive language: The way a question is phrased can influence how someone remembers an event. Suggestive language can plant ideas that weren't part of the original experience. Lack of confidence in the original memory: If someone is unsure about their memory of an event, they are more likely to be swayed by external information or suggestions. Emotional arousal during the event or memory retrieval: High emotions can distort how we perceive and remember events. Strong emotions during the event or when recalling it can make the memory seem more vivid and true, even if details are inaccurate. B) Essay (24 points): You have been asked by a school to give a talk on how principles of cognitive psychology can be used to enhance learning. You decide to present a 5-point plan for students and a 3- point plan for teachers to implement. Describe the two plans, listing the points and the cognitive principles upon which they are based. Clarify whether the points are things to be done prior to class, in class, or after class. You may use bullets, Tables, etc. to organize your response. 5-Point Plan for Students: Active Engagement: When: Before, during, and after class Principle: Active Learning Actions: Preview, participate, review. Spaced and Retrieval Practice: When: Before and after class Principles: Spaced Repetition, Retrieval Practice Actions: Review periodically, quiz yourself. Interleaved Practice: When: Before and after class Principle: Interleaving Actions: Mix topics, vary practice. Elaborative Encoding: When: Before, during, and after class Principle: Elaborative Encoding Actions: Relate, connect, reflect. Metacognitive Strategies: When: Before, during, and after class Principle: Metacognition Actions: Set goals, monitor, adjust. 3-Point Plan for Teachers: Promote Active Learning: Principle: Active Learning Actions: Group activities, real-world applications. Provide Timely Feedback: Principle: Feedback and Assessment Actions: Immediate feedback, formative assessments. Design Effective Instruction: Principles: Cognitive Load Theory, Multimedia Learning Actions: Clear objectives, manageable content, multimedia integration. exemplar and prototypes
ChatGPT
ChatGPT
Sure, here are examples of different memory types along with specific examples:
Incidental Memory (A): This refers to remembering information without intentionally trying to do so. An example would be remembering the color of the shirt a person was wearing during a casual conversation, even though you didn't make a conscious effort to memorize it.
Directed Forgetting (B): This occurs when people intentionally try to forget certain information. An example would be deliberately trying to forget a traumatic event to cope with the associated emotions.
Implicit Memory (F): Implicit memory involves remembering things unconsciously or without awareness. An example would be riding a bike without actively recalling the steps to do so, as the procedural memory for bike riding is stored implicitly.
Retrieval-Induced Forgetting (K): This phenomenon occurs when recalling some information inhibits the recall of related information. For instance, trying to remember the names of your childhood friends might cause you to forget the names of your recent acquaintances.
Source Monitoring (I): Source monitoring involves distinguishing between different sources of information in memory. An example would be remembering whether you read a piece of news on a reputable website or saw it on social media, which can affect your confidence in the accuracy of the information.
Proactive Interference (G): Proactive interference happens when previously learned information interferes with the ability to recall newly learned information. An example would be trying to remember your new phone number, but your old number keeps popping into your mind.
Schema (D): A schema is a mental framework or organized knowledge structure that helps us interpret and understand the world. An example would be using your schema for a restaurant to anticipate what to expect when you visit a new restaurant.
Misinformation Effect (E): This occurs when exposure to misleading information distorts one's memory of an event. An example would be witnessing a car accident and later incorporating details from a news report into your memory of the event, even if those details weren't actually present.
Retroactive Interference (H): Retroactive interference occurs when newly learned information interferes with the recall of previously learned information. An example would be learning a new password that makes it difficult to remember your old one.
Flashbulb Memory (J): Flashbulb memories are vivid and detailed recollections of significant events. An example would be remembering exactly where you were and what you were doing when you heard about a major historical event like the 9/11 terrorist attacks.
These examples illustrate various aspects of memory and how they operate in different contexts.
You
add primacy effect, recency effect, flashbulb bump, Elizabeth loftus, ebbinghaus forgetting curve, prospective memory
ChatGPT!
ChatGPT
Certainly, here are additional memory concepts with specific examples:
Primacy Effect: The primacy effect refers to the tendency to better remember items presented at the beginning of a list. For example, if you're given a list of grocery items to remember, you're more likely to recall the items listed at the beginning, such as "milk" and "bread."
Recency Effect: The recency effect is the phenomenon where items presented at the end of a list are better remembered. For instance, if you're asked to remember a list of names, you're more likely to recall the names of people introduced most recently.
Flashbulb Bump: The flashbulb bump refers to the vivid and detailed memories people have for significant events that occurred during their adolescence or early adulthood. An example would be recalling where you were and how you felt when you heard about the assassination of a prominent political figure.
Elizabeth Loftus: Elizabeth Loftus is a cognitive psychologist known for her research on the malleability of memory, particularly regarding eyewitness testimony. For example, Loftus conducted studies showing how the wording of questions can influence the accuracy of eyewitness recollections, leading to the creation of false memories.
Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve: The Ebbinghaus forgetting curve illustrates the decline of memory retention over time without rehearsal. For example, if you memorize a list of vocabulary words but don't review them, your ability to recall those words will decrease over time according to a predictable curve.
Prospective Memory: Prospective memory involves remembering to perform a planned action at the appropriate time